The English language doesn’t only acquire words by borrowing from other languages, though as the previous section demonstrates, many new words came into the language via that route. Another route is that of semantic change, or a change in the meaning of a word over time. A fairly recent example is the word ‘gay’, which used to have the primary meaning of happy or carefree, but now has the primary meaning of homosexual.
Activity
The following text appears puzzling at first. This is because the underlined words have been used with their original or earlier meaning. Look up the original meanings of the words, and rewrite the text into modern English.
The girl wore his best frock to the dinner-party. He was a healthy young man with a healthy appetite, and he was in danger of eating so much he would starve. There was plenty of meat to suit his vegetarian
Commentary
This text demonstrates the extent to which the meaning of a word can change. The problem faced by language purists who object to change of this kind is that many of the words that are commonly used have undergone the process they are objecting to, and unless they demand that the language should be subjected to some kind of ‘purification’ process in which all words were restored to their original meanings, the purists’ position is a bit illogical.
There are patterned and recognised ways in which the meanings of words can change.
Generalisation and specialisation
A very common way for semantic change to occur is where a word either expands its meaning to include a wider range (generalisation) or narrows its meaning to become more specific (specialisation). Examples of this include ‘wife’, a word that used to mean woman in the general sense. The word gradually specialised to mean ‘a woman of humble rank or low employment’, giving the language constructions such as ale-wife or fish-wife. The word now means married woman. The word ‘tail’, on the other hand, has generalised in meaning. It used to mean a hairy tail, as that of a horse or a fox. It has come to mean any tail.
Activity
Look at the text from the last activity again. Say whether the underlined words have generalised or specialised in meaning. (Note: there is no commentary on this activity.)
Beware of the word! Taboo and euphemism
An important influence in the semantic change of words is the change of meaning brought about by the associations a word may have. There are certain concepts a culture may be uneasy about, and words associated with these concepts may attract censure. When this happens, such words can develop negative connotations. They may then be replaced by other words that are seen as a better or ‘nicer’ way of expressing the concept. Unfortunately, once the new word becomes associated with the concept, it too begins to attract negative connotations and needs to be replaced in turn. This process is known as pejoration. The reverse process, whereby a word acquires a ‘better’ meaning, is known as amelioration.
Activity
The following words refer to the act of human excretion, and the place where this should tastes. After the meal, his disease was so bad he had to go and lie
take place. Classify the words into groups under the following headings: casual/slang, technical/medical, formal/polite.
Which words or phrases would be acceptable in a fairly formal situation?
Commentary
A quick analysis of this word list suggests that excretion is a social minefield in the English-speaking world (or parts of it). A group of students doing this activity decided that in informal, peer-group situations, English is well equipped with words (though there are many groups who would not find these terms acceptable, even in very informal situations).
Interestingly, ‘crap’, a word that is mildly taboo, is probably a euphemism in origin. Its original meanings were husk, weeds and residue. ‘Shit’ has not changed its meaning over time, but is described in the Oxford English Dictionary as ‘not in decent use’. ‘Piss’ is also an old form that has become mildly taboo.
Therefore, one word associated with a socially difficult concept began as a euphemism and has become taboo, while words that carry the original meaning have been considered taboo for some time. Presumably, newer euphemisms will also become taboo in turn.
‘Piss’ and ‘shit’ also seem to be acquiring new, non-taboo meanings. ‘Pissed’ is a well- known English slang term for drunkenness, and more recently American English has developed the meaning of ‘belongings’, detritus, the rest, etc., for ‘shit’, as in the following examples:
‘Bring all your shit with you.’
(part of an invitation from a New Yorker) Cornelius looked at me. ‘That means I’m getting an A. Now that I know the difference between ain’t and aren’t and shit.’
(Susannah Moore, In the Cut) Technical and medical terms, urinate and defecate, would appear to be clear and direct in meaning. Urinate has just the meaning to pass urine, but defecate has the original meaning of to purify.
The formal terms are all euphemistic. The group noted that there is no polite way to say what you are going to do. In this context, the use of a technical term will not help. ‘I am going to urinate’ would not be seen as socially acceptable. There are only polite ways of saying where you are going or asking directions. Even the most apparently direct words for the place are euphemisms.
‘Toilet’ originally meant a piece of cloth in which clothes were wrapped, then a cloth cover for a dressing table, then the dressing table itself. Its current meaning is fairly
pee, piss, urine, shit, crap, faeces, wee, pass water, urinate, defecate, go to the toilet/lavatory/bathroom, powder my nose, rest room, comfort station, w.c., ladies, gents, loo, lavatory, bog
recent and is American in origin.
‘Lavatory’ used to mean a place to wash yourself (compare with current use of bathroom). Both ‘toilet’ and ‘lavatory’ have become socially a bit difficult, and the language has acquired a newer range of euphemisms: ladies, gents, powder room, bathroom, rest room, etc.
Semantic change, as with borrowing, is a continuous process, and far more complex than the brief outline above suggests. An awareness of the capacity of words to shift and change their meaning helps the receiver of text to be aware of change as it has occurred, or as it is occurring.
GET YOUR NEW WORDS HERE! CREATING NEW WORDS
A third way in which English acquires new words is by word creation, either through invention following existing word patterns, or through the direct creation of new words. As with semantic change, this is a massive area, and this section will only address aspects of it.
Activity
Text: Invented words lists words that don’t actually exist in the English language, but could do according to existing routes for word creation. Even though the words don’t exist, discuss the ways in which these words may have developed. Can you identify any words that do exist in the language and that may have arrived via similar routes?
Text: Invented words