Capítulo IV: Presentación y Análisis de los Resultados
5.2. Recomendaciones
The review found that most energy efficiency intervention programs (16 out of 28) were evaluated purely quantitatively (QUAN). Only eight programs included a supplementary qualitative research component (QUAN+qual). Only four program evaluation designs gave equal weight to qualitative research (MMR) and provided in‐depth information on the meaning of the intervention for the householders.
The findings are structured according to the program theories or pathways, namely benefits in indoor warmth, affordability of fuel and psycho‐social factors (Critchley et al. 2007; Gilbertson, Grimsley & Green 2012; Thomson et al. 2013), and the possible risks or ‘pitfalls’ due to inadequate indoor air quality (Bone et al. 2010; Ormandy & Ezratty 2012; Richardson, G & Eick 2006). In presenting the findings we first summarise the assumed functioning of the pathway and then synthesise the results in the intervention literature. Although the narrative is linear, non‐sequential relationships and interconnections between the pathways are pointed out. Finally, the influence of the intervention categories on the outcomes is discussed.
3.6.1 Warmth pathway
The first program theory, the ‘warmth pathway’, posits that better energy efficiency will raise indoor temperatures in winter, increase perceived thermal comfort, lower relative humidity and decrease problems with condensation, dampness and mould. By reversing the aetiology of cold related ill health (Collins 1993; Fisk, Lei‐Gomez & Mendell 2007; Marmot Review Team 2011), better warmth is predicted to benefit respiratory and cardiovascular health.
The review of the selected studies revealed that REEIs resulted in warmer and drier homes.
Respiratory, cardiovascular and general health benefits were reported. The evidence for the
‘warmth pathway’ is discussed according to the headings of indoor temperatures, relative humidity, condensation, dampness and mould, respiratory, cardiovascular, general health and mortality.
Indoor temperatures
Indoor temperatures were assessed in 21 program evaluations. In general, all reviewed studies found homes to be warmer after the interventions. The highest increase in winter indoor
temperatures reported in the studies was 7.1⁰C due to refurbishment measures (Green et al. 2000).
Later studies found more modest increases between 0.6⁰C and 4.5⁰C (Braubach, Heinen & Dame 2008; Combat Poverty Agency & Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland 2009d; Heyman et al. 2011;
Howden‐Chapman et al. 2007; Howden‐Chapman et al. 2008; Lloyd, EL et al. 2008; Noris,
Adamkiewicz et al. 2013; Oreszczyn et al. 2006b; Osman et al. 2010; Pretlove et al. 2002; Richardson, G et al. 2006; Rudge & Winder 2002; Weaver 2004).
Increases in temperature did not automatically reach adequate levels (Critchley et al. 2007; Hong et al. 2009). Possible reasons may have been persistent financial ‘constraints’ or householder
‘preference’ (Critchley et al. 2007). Intervention studies in New Zealand consistently reported the prevalence of indoor temperatures below the WHO guidelines even post‐intervention (Howden‐
Chapman et al. 2007; Howden‐Chapman et al. 2008; Lloyd, CR et al. 2008). It was suggested that the improvement in respiratory health observed in these trials was due to reduced exposures to very low temperatures and high humidity levels indoors (Howden‐Chapman et al. 2007; Howden‐
Chapman et al. 2008). Three studies revealed that the interventions led to more even temperatures
32 throughout the home (Harrington et al. 2005; Richardson, G et al. 2006; Shortt & Rugkåsa 2007) with possible perceived benefits in term of respiratory health (Osman et al. 2010). Even small increases in temperatures led to health benefits (for example: Gilbertson, Grimsley & Green 2012; Howden‐
Chapman et al. 2007; Pierse et al. 2013; Waver 2004).
Overwhelmingly, interventions across all categories improved the householders’ perceived warmth (Basham, Shaw & Barton 2004; Braubach, Heinen & Dame 2008; Breysse et al. 2011; Gilbertson et al.
2006; Harrington et al. 2005; Howden‐Chapman et al. 2007; Lloyd, CR et al. 2008; Platt et al. 2007;
Rugkåsa, Shortt & Boydell 2004; Weaver 2004; Wilson, J et al. 2014a), increased satisfaction with heating and led to the use of more rooms (Braubach, Heinen & Dame 2008; Walker, J. et al. 2009;
Wilson, J et al. 2014b). Examinations of the outcomes of energy efficiency improvements on summer conditions were rare and limited to subjective assessments. All three studies unanimously reported benefits (Johnson, V, Sullivan & Totty 2013; Weaver 2004; Wilson, J et al. 2014a).
Relative humidity, condensation, dampness and mould
Measurements of indoor relative humidity in seven out of the 28 studies confirmed the prediction that the increase in indoor temperatures would lower average relative humidity levels (Braubach, Heinen & Dame 2008; Howden‐Chapman et al. 2007; Lloyd, CR et al. 2008; NorisAdamkiewicz, et al.
2013; Oreszczyn et al. 2006b; Pretlove et al. 2002; Richardson, G et al. 2006). The comparison of the results of interventions across different categories within the Warm Front study revealed a hierarchy of the changes. The drop in relative humidity was largest after refurbishments, followed by upgrades and thermal retrofits, in both living and bedrooms (Oreszczyn et al. 2006b).
Evidence that energy efficiency retrofits reduced the incidence of condensation, dampness and mould was less unequivocal. On the whole, studies on intervention programs across all categories reported a decrease in reported problems with mould (Basham, Shaw & Barton 2004; Breysse et al.
2011; Combat Poverty Agency & Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland 2009d; Green & Gilbertson 2008; Green et al. 2000; Howden‐Chapman et al. 2007; Jacobs et al. 2014; Johnson, V, Sullivan &
Totty 2013; Oreszczyn et al. 2006b; Platt et al. 2007; Richardson, G et al. 2006; Rugkåsa, Shortt &
Boydell 2004; Sheldrick & Hepburn 2006; Shortt & Rugkåsa 2007; Somerville et al. 2000; Walker, J. et al. 2009; Wilson, J et al. 2014a). Yet, conflicting findings or new mould in some of the participating homes were reported in five studies (Braubach, Heinen & Dame 2008; Green & Gilbertson 2008;
Hopton & Hunt 1996; Howden‐Chapman et al. 2007; Howden‐Chapman et al. 2004; Weaver 2004) with inadequate ventilation suspected as the confounding factor (Green & Gilbertson 2008; Hopton
& Hunt 1996). This unsatisfying results for mould prevalence justified the concern about unintended consequences on indoor air quality.
Respiratory health, cardiovascular, general health and mortality
The analysis of respiratory health outcomes supported the warmth pathway yet acknowledged a gap in knowledge. Where assessed, programs that resulted in warmer, more comfortable, drier
dwellings, or reduced condensation, dampness, mould or chemical pollution also reported better self‐reported respiratory conditions (Breysse et al. 2011; Gilbertson et al. 2006; Howden‐Chapman et al. 2007; Howden‐Chapman et al. 2008; Lloyd, EL et al. 2008; Osman et al. 2008; Pretlove et al.
2002; Somerville et al. 2002a; Somerville et al. 2000). Reports of unexplained adverse respiratory health effects (Basham, Shaw & Barton 2004; Braubach & Ferrand 2013; Gilbertson et al. 2006;
33 Johnson, V, Sullivan & Totty 2013; Platt et al. 2007; Rugkåsa, Shortt & Boydell 2004; Wilson, J et al.
2014a) required further investigation.
The assessment of cardiovascular symptoms in the selected intervention studies was scarce yet promising. All four studies reporting subjective or objective outcomes measures of cardiovascular health described benefits (Combat Poverty Agency & Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland 2009c;
Lloyd, EL et al. 2008; Platt et al. 2007; Walker, J. et al. 2009; Wilson, J et al. 2014a).
General health was assessed in 21 programs through self‐reported health ratings. Improved general health was related to improved respiratory (Breysse et al. 2011; Gilbertson et al. 2006; Howden‐
Chapman et al. 2007; Howden‐Chapman et al. 2008; Pretlove et al. 2002; Sheldrick & Hepburn 2007;
Weaver 2004) , cardiovascular (Combat Poverty Agency & Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland 2009a; Lloyd, EL et al. 2008; Sheldrick & Hepburn 2007; Wilson, J et al. 2014a) and mental health (Basham, Shaw & Barton 2004; Howden‐Chapman et al. 2007) and relief from physical pain (Gilbertson et al. 2006; Sheldrick & Hepburn 2007; Weaver 2004). Yet eight studies only found inconclusive (Barton et al. 2007; Combat Poverty Agency & Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland 2009a; Gilbertson, Grimsley & Green 2012; Green & Gilbertson 2008; Green et al. 2000; Heyman et al. 2011; Osman et al. 2008; Richardson, G et al. 2006) or mixed results (Johnson, V, Sullivan & Totty 2013; Rugkåsa, Shortt & Boydell 2004). The review could not find any pattern across categories.
Health preconditions (Johnson, V, Sullivan & Totty 2013), socio‐economic disadvantage (Hopton &
Hunt 1996) and prejudice in favour of the intervention (Heyman et al. 2011) were reported as likely moderators.
In the selected intervention literature an investigation of energy improvements and mortality was rare (El Ansari & El‐Silimy 2008; Telfar‐Barnard et al. 2011; Wilkinson et al. 2005). The differences in population and morbidity measurements and the lack of reports on intermediate factors did not allow a conclusion regarding the pathways from energy efficiency improvements to mortality.
Sample sizes in other studies may have been too small to detect statistically significant effects (Liddell & Morris 2010).
Hence the review revealed that, in general, energy efficiency improvements led to warmer and drier homes with some benefit for physiological health. However, outcomes in mould reduction and relief from illness did not follow automatically, an indication that other factors had been at play.
3.6.2 Affordability pathway
The second program theory, the ‘affordability pathway’, posits that energy efficiency measures will reduce energy consumption and consequently fuel costs, thus relieving financial stress with
associated benefits for mental health (Gilbertson, Grimsley & Green 2012; Thomson et al. 2013).
Theoretically, an improvement of the thermal quality of the building envelope should reduce household energy consumption. In reality the ‘take‐back’ factor, that is the choice of householders to compromise the expected energy cost savings in favour of warmer winter rooms (Clinch & Healy 2000a), resulted in smaller than expected reductions or even increases in energy consumption and bills. In previously underheated homes, the take‐back resulted in more adequate indoor
temperatures and better comfort, and mental health outcomes were positive despite higher fuel costs. The review of the ‘affordability pathway’ is structured according to the headings of energy consumption, affordability of fuel and mental health.
34 Energy consumption
Changes in the actual energy consumption were measured by meter readings before and after the interventions or through householder‐estimated changes in energy costs in 13 program evaluations.
In general, studies across all categories reported only small or non‐significant reductions in energy usage (Green et al. 2000; Lloyd, CR et al. 2008; Telfar‐Barnard et al. 2011; Weaver 2004) or even small increases (Heyman et al. 2011; Hong, Oreszczyn & Ridley 2006; Johnson, V, Sullivan & Totty 2013; Pretlove et al. 2002). Although most evaluations attributed these surprising results to the take‐back effect (Green & Gilbertson 2008; Heyman et al. 2011; Lloyd, CR et al. 2008; Oreszczyn et al. 2006a; Osman et al. 2010; Shortt & Rugkåsa 2007), a large UK study discovered that shortcomings in workmanship also confounded potential energy reductions (Hong, Oreszczyn & Ridley 2006). Fuel choice moderated changes in energy usage in some programs (Chapman, Howden‐Chapman &
O’Dea 2004; Rugkåsa, Shortt & Boydell 2004; Weaver 2004). More pronounced energy savings were recorded in a thermal retrofit in New Zealand (Chapman, Howden‐Chapman & O’Dea 2004;
Howden‐Chapman et al. 2004) and a low carbon refurbishment in the US (Breysse et al. 2011), two programs at opposing ends of the improvement category spectrum. Considering the common aim of reducing fuel poverty through energy conservation, the difficulty to show significant energy savings in many of the selected studies promised little benefits in terms of the overall affordability of fuel.
Affordability of fuel
Affordability of fuel was assessed either quantitatively and objectively, based on the ratio of fuel expenditure and income (for example: Bashsam, Shaw & Barton 2004; Pretlove et al. 2002), or qualitatively and subjectively, by questioning householders about their ability to heat their home (for example: Gilbertson, Grimsley & Green 2012; Johnson, Victoria & Sullivan 2011). The present review revealed that the findings for the affordability of fuel were mixed. Although studies across the thermal retrofit (Combat Poverty Agency & Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland 2009e; Lloyd, CR et al. 2008), refurbishment (Pretlove et al. 2002) and low carbon refurbishment (Lloyd, EL et al.
2008) categories reported that the intervention made the purchase of heating fuel more affordable, the mere upgrade of central heating did not have a noticeable benefit on the perceived ease of paying fuel bill (Basham, Shaw & Barton 2004). Central heating that increased the conditioned area may not have been affordable for low‐income households (Rudge & Winder 2002). By contrast, the evaluation of a large purposive refurbishment in the UK revealed that those intervention packages that included a heating upgrade almost halved the likelihood of self‐reported fuel payment
difficulties (Gilbertson, Grimsley & Green 2012). Paradoxically, the combination of new heating and insulation in this program had no effect on actual fuel consumption and consequently on costs (Hong, Oreszczyn & Ridley 2006). Three studies demonstrated that rising energy prices outweighed expected savings (Johnson, V, Sullivan & Totty 2013) or that the scope of the intervention was insufficient to significantly relieve worries about fuel costs (Basham 2003; Pretlove et al. 2002;
Shortt & Rugkåsa 2007). When householders reported fewer problems with paying fuel bills although their actual fuel costs rose (Gilbertson, Grimsley & Green 2012; Hong, Oreszczyn & Ridley 2006), it has to be surmised that the perceived benefit in fuel affordability was due to other factors that relieved anxiety and improved mental health.
Mental health
Mental health outcomes were evaluated in five programs. There was some indication that energy retrofits and refurbishments had an effect on improving mental health and reducing stress and
35 anxiety in householders via the affordability of fuel (Gilbertson, Grimsley & Green 2012; Gilbertson et al. 2006; Green & Gilbertson 2008, p. 14; Hopton & Hunt 1996; Howden‐Chapman et al. 2007).
Nonetheless, one refurbishment evaluation failed to find significant improvements in mental health, despite a reduction of energy consumption and less financial stress in the intervention group than in the control group (Walker, J. et al. 2009). In another refurbishment study the mental health
outcomes of both intervention and control group were mixed (Braubach, Heinen & Dame 2008).
Apart from fuel affordability, mental health outcomes were also found to be mediated by comfort and psycho‐social factors (Green & Gilbertson 2008).
3.6.3 Psycho‐social pathway
The psycho‐social pathway explains health benefits from residential energy efficiency improvements through the enriched meaning of the home. Psycho‐social factors cover the congruence of the householder’s expectations with the actual home environment (Sixsmith 1986), which may be determined by cultural and social norms as well as the householders’ individual needs and beliefs.
Hence psycho‐social factors may influence mental as well as social health outcomes.
This review mapped the householder experiences to Kearns et al.‘s (2000; 2011) elements of psycho‐social benefits of homes. Despite the few qualitative studies, the review found evidence that residential energy efficiency improvements consolidated the meaning of the home as a safe haven, strengthened the householder’s perceived autonomy and enhanced social status. Mental and social health benefits of the interventions were predominantly mediated by increases in thermal comfort and the use of more rooms in the home. Follow‐on effects on educational attainment and
productivity were revealed. Evidence for the psycho‐social pathway is synthesised according to the ideas of the home as a haven, the autonomy of the householders and the status associated with the dwelling.
Haven — privacy, retreat, routine, safety and security
Four intervention studies suggested that social functioning was enhanced by improved privacy and relationships within families because people were no longer crowded in a small heated area (Barton et al. 2007; Basham 2003; Basham, Shaw & Barton 2004; Gilbertson et al. 2006; Lloyd, EL et al.
2008). The ‘take‐back’ factor may have been due to the increased value of the home as a ‘haven’
(Green & Gilbertson 2008). Bathrooms were warmer after the interventions and used more often, longer and for the purpose of relaxation (Basham 2003; Harrington et al. 2005). Routine changes due to warmer bathrooms or by abandoning coal fires were perceived as positive (Shortt & Rugkåsa 2007).
Safety co‐benefits referred to the draught proofing windows (Basham, Shaw & Barton 2004) and to central heating versus the former coal fires (Basham 2003). In addition, safety seemed to have been linked to the perceived social expectations of good parenting (Basham, Shaw & Barton 2004;
Johnson, V, Sullivan & Totty 2013). Evidence for adverse effects on social health were only linked to fewer family gatherings (Basham 2003; Basham, Shaw & Barton 2004; Gilbertson et al. 2006).
Autonomy — freedom, control and identity
Interventions led to the expansion of the heated space and greater freedom and autonomy (Barton et al. 2007; Basham 2003; Gilbertson et al. 2006; Green & Gilbertson 2008; Platt et al. 2007; Shortt &
Rugkåsa 2007). Autonomy and control of indoor temperatures were also linked to mental health
36 outcomes. Householders who found their homes to be too cold presented higher stress levels (Green & Gilbertson 2008), whereas the individual preference for colder indoor temperatures seemed to protect from anxiety and depression (Critchley et al. 2007). The reliability of the heating system (Basham 2003; Basham, Shaw & Barton 2004; Gilbertson et al. 2006) and the householders’
control of the indoor temperature also led to an easing of anxiety and a feeling of empowerment (Gilbertson et al. 2006; Johnson, V, Sullivan & Totty 2013). Positive feelings of control also extended to the budgeting of fuel costs (Basham 2003). However, loss of control and consequent adverse psychological symptoms were reported when householders could not master the new appliances (Basham 2003). Strengthened householder identity was evident in house makeovers (Basham 2003;
Rugkåsa, Shortt & Boydell 2004), and in greater self‐esteem and pride (Barton et al. 2007; Basham, Shaw & Barton 2004).
Status and progress
Evidence from the intervention literature revealed that improvement in status was linked to perceived social norms of thermal comfort in homes. ‘Normal’ was perceived as having a ‘warm house’, “walking ‘round in a T‐shirt” (Basham 2003, p. 4) and wearing pyjamas on Christmas morning (Basham, Shaw & Barton 2004), aspirations achieved through the installation of central heating that was considered as ‘standard in a modern society’ (Basham, Shaw & Barton 2004). Increased
temperatures and absence of mould also translated into greater hospitality (Basham, Shaw & Barton 2004; Platt et al. 2007) where householders no longer feared falling short of meeting social norms of warmth and cleanliness.
The review also found evidence that energy efficiency improvements enhanced personal progress.
Productivity benefits were linked to heater upgrades that reduced the days off school of asthmatic children (Howden‐Chapman et al. 2007; Howden‐Chapman et al. 2008; Somerville et al. 2000) and days off work for the carers (Howden‐Chapman et al. 2007). In addition, being able to use more areas in the home for quiet study was found to have led to higher aspirations in education and more academic achievements in parents and in children (Basham 2003; Basham, Shaw & Barton 2004) as well as to an increased motivation to complete household chores (Basham 2003; Basham, Shaw &
Barton 2004).
Although only seven of the 28 programs included an exploration of the psycho‐social pathways in their evaluations, the review of the information demonstrated how energy efficiency strengthened the emotional and social meaning of the dwelling as a home. Differences in outcomes according to the intervention categories were not observed. Although the warmth, affordability and psycho‐social pathways explained the many positive effects of residential energy efficiency improvements on the householders’ lives and wellbeing, the indoor air quality pitfall route raised concerns about possible unintended consequences.
3.6.4 Indoor air quality pitfall
Experts have warned of the risk of “health pitfalls of home energy‐efficiency retrofits” (Manuel 2011). It has been hypothesised that a reduction of air leakages through draught proofing would be likely to raise internal humidity levels and lead to mould (Bone et al. 2010; Manuel 2011; Ormandy &
Ezratty 2012; Richardson, G & Eick 2006; WHO Expert Group 2009) or to higher levels of indoor chemical pollution from internal sources (Manuel 2011; Wilkinson et al. 2009) with possible adverse health effects. In the absence of mechanical ventilation systems, the key to adequate ventilation is
37 assumed to be appropriate occupant behaviour and lifestyle (Fung, Porteous & Sharpe 2006;
Richardson, G & Eick 2006). The review of the literature revealed that draught proofing was able to reduce involuntary ventilation, yet evidence for adverse effects of energy efficiency improvements was rare.
The present review revealed that draught proofing measures decreased subjective draughtiness (Gilbertson, Grimsley & Green 2012; Iversen, Bach & Lundqvist 1986; Johnson, V, Sullivan & Totty 2013; Weaver 2004), yet the results of objective measurements of air infiltration rates were inconclusive. The installation of new central heating systems caused leakages in the thermal
envelope in a UK program (Hong et al. 2004) and three other refurbishments reported mixed results or a lack of change (Braubach, Heinen & Dame 2008; Pretlove et al. 2002; Richardson, G et al. 2006).
The biggest increase in airtightness was measured in a refurbishment that included the replacement of broken windows (Noris, Adamkiewicz et al. 2013).
Evidence for adverse health effects due to a lack of adequate ventilation was rare. Insufficient natural ventilation was blamed for some incidents of mould (Green & Gilbertson 2008; Hopton &
Hunt 1996; Weaver 2004) and high indoor carbon monoxide levels (Sharpe 2013). Objective assessments of biological agents in the indoor environment were seldom subject of intervention evaluations. Two studies that monitored dust mite allergens found significant reductions (Jacobs et al. 2014; Pretlove et al. 2002) with limited evidence for improvement in respiratory health (Pretlove et al. 2002). One New Zealand study, in which the reported improvements in subjective assessments
Hunt 1996; Weaver 2004) and high indoor carbon monoxide levels (Sharpe 2013). Objective assessments of biological agents in the indoor environment were seldom subject of intervention evaluations. Two studies that monitored dust mite allergens found significant reductions (Jacobs et al. 2014; Pretlove et al. 2002) with limited evidence for improvement in respiratory health (Pretlove et al. 2002). One New Zealand study, in which the reported improvements in subjective assessments