Recursos, bibliografía y documentación complementaria Bibliografía básica

Amongst the daily issues communities in Padang and Kaliurang have to face, including in the context of post 2009 earthquake in Padang and 2010 Merapi Volcano eruption in Kaliurang, which is the time frame when this research was conducted, is related to diversity and diversity governance. After discussing democracy, democracy from below and its relationship with cultural practices, therefore, it is cru-cial to discuss the idea of diversity, community diversity governance and its possible relations with democracy from below.

By concept, diversity refers to differences in society, which could be of religions, ethnicity, traditions, races, gender, and beliefs (Leh-ning, 1997: 222). Banks et al. (2005: 17) describes diversity as, ‘The wide range of racial, cultural, ethnic, linguistic, and religious varia-tion that exists within and across groups that live in multicultural na-tion-states (See Figure 1)’. Banks et al. add, in smaller society, differ-ences remain exist but in narrower range at least involving gender and social status. Banks et al. mention that colonialism, migrations, and international trading encourage the increasing diversity in a nation through cultural amalgams and hybrids. Although generally known as a Muslim country—in which Muslim is the majority in it—Indonesia is diverse. By religion, besides Islam, there are Christianity, Hindhu, Buddhist and other local religions in Indonesia. By ethnicity, there are Java, Sunda, Batak, Minang, Ambon, Flores, Dayak, Papua, and so forth. By race, there are Malay, Chinese, Papua, and so forth.

Diversity is not a problem. However, it remains in need for being managed. Once diversity fails to be managed, the impact could be very serious. Not only physical lost, this may also let to the separation of the states. Besides secession, war, conflict, discrimination against mi-nority, and even genocide are amongst the worst risks the communi-ties may have to bear because of failed management of diversity. The problem is the state is not always present to overcome anything hap-pens in diversity-related issues in communities. And, if they may do, they may be in the side of majority, which is clearly not healthy for de-mocracy. It is too easy to mention the example of the state’s absences in diversity management or the state’s diversity miss-management in Indonesia. The kicking out of Shi’a followers in Madure, East Java two years ago, so they are no longer staying at their own homes, and must reside in sport stadium in another district; violence against minori-ty Ahmadi Muslim in some regions in Indonesia; repression against ethnic Chinese since colonial era to reformasi and post-reformasi, hor-izontal wars in Sampit (Kalimantan), Poso (Sulawesi), and Ambon (Moluccas) are amongst the pictures of unmanaged or miss-managed diversity. Losing family members, materials, and opportunities to gain education and employment are of direct impacts the communities have to overcome.

Since the state is not always present, or if they were present, they were present wrongly due to biased policy, getting community able to govern diversity by their selves in their own environment is necessary.

Interestingly, in some communities in Indonesia, there are actually mechanisms created by their ancient ancestors to tackle social ten-sions and conflicts that may be caused by sentiments against tribes, ethnicities, religions, geographical origins, and so forth. It is acknowl-edged that some of these cultural practices eroded for the policy of Bhineka Tunggal Ika (‘unity in diversity’) imposed by the state during New Order, which is actually no more than about uniformization of Indonesia—make all communities in Indonesia to be like Javanese and to adopt Javanese culture and social system in communities’ so-cial and local political system, and some others are changing. Yet, in some others, the practices remain existing, like bakar batu in Papua.

In Ambon, people try to revive pela gandong after years of erosion, and in Java, people remain practicing rembugan. Cultural practices like this need to be developed to equip community’s ability to manage diversity.

In relation to democracy from below, community diversity gov-ernance enriches some basis needed to promote it, in addition to the practical advantage it offers like the lessening of conflict poten-tial. Firstly, it encourages equality between community members

regardless of their ethnicity, religion, and geographical origins (En-slin, Pendlebury, and Tjiattas, 2001: 118). Secondly, it promotes in-clusion, in which all community members are allowed to take part in community dialogues (Young, 1996: 122), which is a fertile ingredient to develop democracy from below. Thirdly, it encourages communities to build mutual understanding referred as willingness to deliberate together in a certain common focus (Isin, 2002: 125).

Community already has networks ranging from family webs to neighborhood. Furthermore, in the community some places connect between community members. Schools, traditional markets, mosques, churches, community security post, rice fields, cattle product fields, sport field, forest, and community meeting house (balai kampung in Javanese are important places where community members use to meet up. Daily community issues like road building, bridge fixing, mosque establishment, rice field cultivation, daily trading, children education, art performance, and so forth are also spotted in these areas. The use of these networks as a space and resource for endorsing democra-cy principles can be so strategic. Rembugan in Java, musyawarah in Padang, bakar batu in Papua, and pela gandong in Ambon, happen in these places. In that occasion, sengkuyung (in Java) and rasopareso (in Padang) fulfill the processes to enable community members to share their ideas, participate in community discussion, and make collective decision related to community issues.

SOCIAL SETTINGS OF PADANG