CAPITULO III: COMPROBACIÓN DE LA FACTIBILIDAD DE LA METODOLOGÍA ELABORADA PARA EL PERFECIONAMIENTO DE LA CONTEXTUALIZACIÓN
3.3 Resultados obtenidos con la introducción de la metodología.
3.3.3 Reflexiones que se derivan de la introducción de la metodología.
We use the term ‘theory of mind’ (ToM) or ‘mentalizing’ to describe a) the ways we assign mental states to ourselves and to others, and b) use those assignations to predict and explain human behaviours (Bosco, et al., 2014). For some researchers, social cognition is mentalizing (e.g. Adolphs, 2006). For the purposes of this study, I have cast ToM as a subset of social cognition as this construction meant I could explore it in relation to other aspects under review, while still maintaining some clarity of definitions between them. It was important to include ToM as an aspect
of interest in the study because it is inextricably linked with other aspects of
development, such as emotion-‐processing and executive function (e.g. Vetter, et al., 2013a and b), I was also interested to see whether any discernable effects of ToM might have an impact on participants’ online behaviours.
Most research into ToM in the last ten years has happened in the field of neuroscience, although some teams (notably Blakemore’s team at UCL) have been undertaking interdisciplinary work across neuroscience and psychology. What has resulted is a more clinical perspective on this topic than, there is, for example, on
attachment. This is reflected in this brief review. A large body of research into ToM in childhood finds that children are already beginning to develop a relatively sophisticated ToM around the age of three (for a summary of the research surrounding ToM in childhood, see Doherty, 2008). By late childhood, there is already evidence of complex prediction of others’ emotions based on a range of implicit and explicit cues (Rosenblum and Lewis, 2003). It is in adolescence, however, that young people begin to be able to truly imbue their understanding of
others’ emotions and thoughts with the information they have observed and absorbed over the preceding years (e.g. Blakemore, 2012).
In the next section, I will reflect on what key models of mentalizing in adolescence can tell us about the ways in which adolescents understand others’ thoughts and emotions. This will not be a detailed review, but will provide the reader with sufficient information to understand the ways in which I have interpreted the limited data I collected on this topic in Chapter 5. It should be
remembered, however, that the study of adolescent ToM outside the spheres of
empirical clinical psychology (in particular autism research) and neuroscience is rare, and even within those fields, it is in its infancy. This has undoubtedly had an impact on the high levels of caution I have used in choosing to absorb the topic into this study.
4.6.1 ToM and adolescence
Although the evidence is patchy and recent, we do know some things about ToM and adolescence, not least the fact that developmental change in ToM happens
throughout adolescence (Bosco, et al., 2014). However, the development is not linear or steady – Bosco and colleagues found that while age effects were
consistent between 11 and 13 years, they moved in anticipated directions between 13 and 15, and then appeared to stabilize. We cannot infer anything from this
research about the general age at which we begin to master ToM.
There is still considerable debate about whether or not children and adolescents are better at reasoning about their own mental states than about others’ (e.g. Goldman, 1993 vs. Gopnik, 1993). My reading of the literature would suggest that this is in part because we do not yet have adequate tools for exploring experimental contexts, and perhaps, because we do not yet have sufficient
understanding of either adolescence or theory of mind. There are, however, hints as to productive directions in which to take research in the coming years; the efficiency of perspective-‐taking processes, working memory and inhibitory control (e.g. Dumontheil, et al., 2010). All we can say with any certainty is that capacity for
understanding our own and others’ mental states grows, deepens and improves
during adolescence, and that some of these changes are represented in the ways in which we behave and in our brains (e.g. Blakemore, 2012).
4.6.2 States of Theory of Mind
Some of the research into mentalizing divides our ability to make inferences about others’ mental states (Frith and Frith, 2003) into:
-‐ cognitive or ‘cold’ mental states (e.g. beliefs and knowledge)
-‐ affective or ‘hot’ mental states, in other words ‘emotions’ (Shamay-‐Tsoory, et al., 2010), which can, in turn, be classified as social emotions (i.e. those that necessitate our understanding of mental states and basic emotions (e.g. fear) (Sebastian, et al., 2010).
Adolescents must learn to have both of these types of ToM functioning well and in harmony if they are to develop normatively (Vetter, et al., 2013b). Shamay-‐
Tsoory, et al. (2010) found that affective ToM is dependent on both a competent cognitive ToM and empathy in order to operate (2010). These processes together comprise a functioning ToM, which indicates the tremendously challenging aspect of processing that ToM presents. Evidence emerging from behavioural psychology supports this, indicating that cognitive ToM develops earlier than affective (Ruffman and Keenan, 1996), suggesting that the developmental
trajectory is longer for affective than cognitive ToM. However, given the paucity of evidence surrounding adolescent ToM (Vetter, et al., 2013a) this can only be speculative.
In addition to empathy, we know that another driver of change in cognitive
ToM at least is executive function (EF). EF is the cognitive processes used to organize and regulate in order to achieve goals (Vetter, et al., 2013a), for example managing time, focusing, planning, remembering important facts and,
importantly for ToM, inhibition (Vetter, et al., 2013a). EF plays a proven role in cognitive ToM performance (Carlson and Moses, 2001; Vetter, et al., 2013a). However, it does not stretch credibility to see that in the event of EF operating poorly, affective ToM might be influenced (Vetter, et al., 2013a). For example,
being disorganized might lead to missing important content in a lesson at school, thereby affecting performance and self-‐esteem.
Other researchers make different distinctions in tackling ToM. Some claim that understanding ourselves (first person) and understanding others (third
person) requires different processes and types of understanding (Nichols and Stich, 2003; Bosco, et al., 2014). This is important because the latter type requires ‘nested representations’ (Bosco, et al., 2014), and the evidence suggests that we develop
first person ToM well before third person ToM (e.g. Perner and Wimmer, 1985). Other distinctions include the difference between the ‘egocentric’ and ‘allocentric’ perspectives (Frith and de Vignemont, 2005). Egocentric representations are the way we compare the mental states of others to our own, and allocentric
We thus have a number of dualistic perspectives of ToM to take forward
into this study. They are not mutually exclusive and in some cases interrelate; I have thought of them as facets of a single jewel, summarized in the coding as:
-‐ cognitive (including examples of EF)
-‐ affective (including examples of empathy)
-‐ egocentric
-‐ allocentric
While the Strange Stories tool adapted for use in this study was a starting point for
these explorations, examples of ToM being made explicit to me were evident in other tools and during the interviews. This is discussed further in Chapter 3.
4.6.3 ToM and the brain
In this section I will briefly touch on some of the evidence emerging from neuroscience relating to ToM. This is in order to provide helpful context for
interpreting the perspectives shared by my participants; I am not intending to share diagrams of the brain, or profess to an understanding of neuroscience that I do not have.
Neuroscientists term the network of brain regions that facilitate social cognition the ‘social brain’. The social brain is thought to enable us to understand ourselves and others, including the ability to recognize different mental states (Sebastian, et al., 2010). The social brain undergoes considerable change during adolescence, which is of interest because of the corresponding changes happening in young people’s social behaviour, their new risk-‐taking, concern with others’
perspectives and exploratory independence (Sebastian, et al., 2010). Studies
exploring neuroimaging of ToM during this period have found that medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) decreases as a young person progresses through adolescence (Sebastian, et al., 2010).
While the reasons behind these changes remain unclear, neuroscientists using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) have observed prefrontal cortex (PFC) activity during ToM tasks (often using face-‐processing techniques) decreases as a young person progresses through adolescence and increase during
emotion regulation tasks (Sebastian, et al., 2010). In terms of distinctions between cognitive and affective ToM, research has shown that those parts of the brain tasked with recombining complicated information work hard during adolescence to integrate cognitive and affective information (Shamay-‐Tsoory, et al., 2010; Vetter, et al., 2013b).
ToM studies rooted in behavioural psychology and neuroscience have several common problems summarized by Vetter, et al. (2013a):
1. They tend to focus on cognitive, rather than affective, ToM. Where they do investigate affective ToM, they are rarely investigating the same aspect of affective ToM.
2. A number of studies utilize tasks aimed at children, and are either poorly adapted for adolescents, or not adapted at all (Blakemore, 2008).
My study is one that reflects on the broader sweep of social cognition in
light of adolescent use of technology; neuroscience in its current form is better at creating robust answers to very detailed questions, all of which grow incrementally to add to our broader state of, as yet, incomplete knowledge.