Relación entre coberturas vegetales y usos de la tierra en relación al comportamiento de los caudales

Throughout modern history, several individuals have pioneered quality and Lean efforts and have made a significant impact on the body of knowledge in their respective fields. These individuals were ahead of their time and pro- vided paradigm shifts in the field. Like many on the cutting edge who push the boundaries of a given field, their ideas initially were not fully accepted by their peers, reinforcing the fact that change can be difficult for organiza- tions. Through demonstrated results, their ideas gained widespread accep- tance and are today considered standards in the quality and Lean fields. By understanding their backgrounds and efforts, insight can be gained into the next big paradigm shifts in the Lean and Six Sigma fields. The following details these individuals and their contributions.

2.3.1 Fredrick Winslow Taylor (1856–1915)

Fredrick Winslow Taylor was an American mechanical engineer and is con- sidered the father of scientific management [1]. In 1878, he was a machine shop laborer at Midvale Steel Works who was promoted into management and held the belief that the shop floor workers were not highly efficient and not working hard enough; as a result, he believed that the company was los- ing a significant amount of money. These pressures were the catalyst for his scientific management concept and his goal to create standard procedures based on time studies for every operation under his control to ensure effi- ciency and cost control. His efforts marked the origin of “Lean manufactur- ing” and the concepts related to value streams, worker/ machine utilization, productivity analysis, and what would later become mass production. In 1898, he accepted a position at Bethlehem Steel to improve capacity and lower costs [1]. Many at the company felt his management concepts were too aggressive and he was forced to leave in 1901, underscoring the resistance to change for many organizations very early in American history.

2.3.2 Henry Ford (1863–1947)

Henry Ford was the founder of Ford Motor Company in 1903 and is credited with further developing the assembly line and ushering in mass production

20 Lean Six Sigma for Engineers and Managers: With Applied Case Studies

as a widely accepted manufacturing system [12]. Many of his management concepts fit closely with Taylor’s scientific management philosophy; Ford modified these concepts for the automobile industry on a very large scale. In the early 1900s, he had a very innovative management philosophy for his time: to pay high wages to workers to ensure high productivity and quality while systematically lowering production costs [12]. In fact, he was paying double the labor rates to his production workers versus the industry average at the time to bolster employee morale and productivity. His management philosophy took Taylor’s scientific management style of “Do it this way in this amount of time—or you’re fired,” combined with an incentive program of high wages. Ford’s higher wages also had the benefit of creating a workforce that could afford his product, the Model- T, increasing his sales further [12]. 2.3.3 W. Edwards Deming (1900–1993)

W. Edwards Deming was an American statistician, professor, and consultant who led quality efforts in postwar Japan in the 1950s [13]. His major contribu- tion to the field related to the use of statistics and quality control processes to minimize and monitor defects. He pioneered quality efforts in Japan and is regarded as a national hero for his contributions that transformed Japan into a producer of top- quality goods. He faced a great deal of adversity early in his career and resistance to change for his philosophies; initially in the 1940s, his quality control ideas were not accepted by US manufacturers. When he attempted to promote these concepts he met with much resistance and lim- ited buy- in to his concepts. In the 1950s he was requested to travel to Japan to assist with the rebuilding efforts and his quality control concepts gained widespread acceptance [13].

2.3.4 Joseph M. Juran (1904–2008)

Joseph Juran was an electrical engineer by training, and along with Deming he pioneered quality improvement efforts in Japan after World War II. His passion for quality control and improvement was fostered by an early posi- tion; he joined Western Electric’s Hawthorne Works to troubleshoot customer issues in the complaint department [14]. Most of his contributions to the field relate to the use of statistics for process improvement. He is credited with creating the Pareto principle, acceptance sampling, and statistical process control [14].

2.3.5 Kiichiro Toyoda (1894–1952)

Kiichiro Toyoda was a Japanese entrepreneur who brought Toyoda Loom Works into automobile manufacturing and created what would eventually become Toyota Motor Corporation [15]. His decision to transform Toyoda into an automobile company laid the foundation for what is now the

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Toyota Production System (TPS) and created the world’s largest automobile manufacturer. TPS is considered the benchmark for Lean manufacturing and is a large reason Toyota has been so dominant in the automobile indus- try over the past four decades [15].

2.3.6 Philip B. Crosby (1926–2004)

Philip Crosby was a quality leader who promoted the concept of zero defects. He stressed the cost benefits of zero defects, and in his most popular book,

Quality Is Free, he demonstrated that the money a company invests to improve quality and achieve zero defects will result in positive cash flows related to reduced rework, reduced internal/ external failures, and reduced appraisals/ prevention costs [16]. He also emphasized that one cannot “inspect in” qual- ity retroactively, that it must be built into the process proactively to eliminate defects at all stages of the process and eliminate the need for inspection [16]. His work laid the foundation for what is now Six Sigma by focusing a stretch goal of zero defects and integrating quality measures throughout the entire process or system.

2.3.7 Armand V. Feigenbaum (1922–2014)

Armand Feigenbaum is credited with developing the total quality manage- ment (TQM) philosophy while working for General Electric as an operations manager [17]. His concepts transformed the statistical process control tech- niques developed by Deming, Juran, and Crosby into a company-wide move- ment that engaged all employees in quality improvement. TQM represented the first company-wide quality improvement strategy and in many ways, was the predecessor of Six Sigma.

2.3.8 Kaoru Ishikawa (1915–1989)

Kaoru Ishikawa was an engineering professor at the University of Tokyo and he developed the cause and effect diagrams (also known as fishbone diagrams) that are used to identify root causes for process improvement [18]. A fishbone diagram is displayed in Figure 2.1. He promoted and enhanced the statistical process control concepts developed by Deming and Juran in postwar Japan, and enhanced these efforts by developing quality circles to incorporate all levels of the organization in the problem- solving process. 2.3.9 Genichi Taguchi (1924–2012)

Genichi Taguchi was an engineer in postwar Japan for the Electrical Communications Laboratory of the Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation and is credited with developing new statistical methods to mea- sure the cost of quality [19]. He created what is now known as the Taguchi

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loss function, which is a statistical method to measure the financial loss to society from poor quality. His methods emphasized the use of design of experiments (DOE) to better understand the process and material param- eters that maximized quality of the end product and robustness in design. 2.3.10 Mikel Harry (1955–)

Mikel Harry has been widely recognized and cited in many publications as the principal architect of Six Sigma and a leading authority within the field [20]. He led efforts at Motorola to improve quality in the late 1980s by creating and implementing what is now known as the Six Sigma philosophy. His efforts were recognized by competing companies and in the mid-1990s General Electric (GE), under the leader ship of CEO Jack Welch, implemented Six Sigma with tremendous success [21]. Motorola and GE’s quality and financial successes during the 1990s led to the proliferation of the Six Sigma philosophy to numerous organizations in the United States and the world.