Rentabilidad 1 VANE y TIRE

The  theorising  of  globalisation  and  the  internationalisation  of  HE  is  most   usefully  discussed  within  an  interdisciplinary  framework.  

I  will  now  discuss  sociological  interpretations  of  how  globalisation  functions   based  on  the  local-­‐global  relationship.  Then,  notions  of  space  and  place,  as   theorized  (primarily)  by  Edwards  and  Usher  (1998;  2000)  will  be  explained.   Next,  a  theory  of  indigenisation  proposed  by  Appadurai  will  be  introduced.   Finally,  I  will  refer  to  Beck’s  new  'scape',  called  an  'Eduscape',  which  I  will   argue  explains  the  flow  of  educational  practices  and  activities  associated  with   internationalisation.    

3.2.1  Global  and  local  

The  contrasting  terms  'local'  and  'global’  are  frequently  proposed  to  explain   globalisation.  Many  accounts  show  how  the  local  is  surpassed  by  the  global   or  the  global  seen  as  the  standardising  force  that  immerses  the  local.  In  fact,   the  phenomenon  is  more  complex.  Globalisation  has  been  attributed  to   singular  causes.  However,  Giddens  (1990,  64)  views  it  as  a  "dialectical  

a  uniform  direction,  but  consists  in  mutually  opposed  tendencies"  (Giddens,   1990,  64).  Robertson,  on  the  other  hand  (1992),  envisages  these  forces  not  so   much  as  'mutually  opposed'  but  as  opposing  interaction  between  the  

particular  and  the  universal.  This  multifaceted  interaction  and  synthesis  of   globalising  and  localising  interplay  is  called  "glocalisation"  (for  example,   Appadurai,  1990;  Scott,  1997;  Spybey,  1996).  Here,  the  boundaries  of  local   and  global  as  separate  units  have  become  imprecise,  and  one  cannot  exist   without  the  other.  As  Edwards  and  Usher  (2000)  claim,  each  must  be   understood  as  an  integral  part  of  the  other.    

Some  of  the  consequences  that  flow  from  the  overlapping  of  the  global  and   local  include  time-­‐space  distantiation  (Giddens,  1990),  time-­‐space  

compression  (Robertson,  1990),  the  disembedding  of  social  relations   (Giddens,  1990),  and  disconnection  and  dislocation  (Edwards  &  Usher,   2000).  It  can  be  argued  that  increased  mobility  strengthens  the  experience  of   disconnection  and  the  disembeddedness  from  place  and  social  context,  which   provides  the  backdrop  for  the  mobility  of  international  students.  It  is  to  a   more  detailed  discussion  of  space  and  place  in  globalisation  theory  that  I  now   move.    

3.2.2  Space  and  Place  

As  previously  clarified,  globalisation  is  about  the  movement  of  people  and   ideas  across  borders;  it  is  unavoidable  that  this  movement  will  interrupt   notions  of  place,  home,  space  and  time.  By  the  same  token,  globalisation  has   been  portrayed  as  ‘re-­‐imagining  geography'  (Edwards  &  Usher,  2000,  14;   Said,  in  Hall  1992,  301).  As  the  restrictions  of  geography  overlap  with  space   and  time,  they  influence  the  understanding  of  'home'.  Once  'home'  was   considered  a  close-­‐knit  community,  within  a  geographically  small  area.  With   the  increase  of  human  movement,  this  is  no  longer  the  case.  The  

aforementioned  notions  not  only  provide  a  context  for  the  alarming  and   dramatic  increase  of  refugees  displaced  by  conflict,  natural  disasters  and   climate  change,  or  people  who  move  to  high  density  urban  agglomerations  in   search  for  work  opportunities  and  better  lives,  but  also  for  students  and  staff  

in  search  of  international  experience  in  academia.    

As  Beck  (2008,  64)  observes,  Waters  (1995,  3)  uses  the  phenomenon  of   fragmentation  of  place  to  underpin  globalisation  as  "a  social  process  in  which   the  constraints  of  geography  on  social  and  cultural  arrangements  recede,  and   in  which  people  become  increasingly  aware  that  they  are  receding."  By  the   same  token,  Appadurai  (1990)  claims  that  geography  of  residence  no  longer   entirely  defines  identity.    

To  illustrate  the  coexistence  of  contradictory  phenomena,  a  feature  of   globalisation,  Edwards  and  Usher’s  (2000,  15)  work  is  predominantly   concerned  with  globalisation  as  a  'conceptualisation  of  space'  and  its  impact   on  both  the  physical  and  imagined.  They  claim  that  the  local  is  not  in  contrast   to  globalisation,  but  instead,  must  be  seen  as  an  integral  part  of  it.  

Edwards  and  Usher  (1998;  2000),  tracing  the  appearance  of  metaphors  of   location  and  space,  suggest  a  theory  of  pedagogy  for  contemporary  times.   They  argue  that  positioning,  and  being  positioned  "entail  forms  of  dislocation   -­‐  of  misidentifying  and  being  positioned  as  other,  and  where  positioning  is   itself  mobile,  always  on  the  move"  (1998,  160,  emphasis  added).  They  refer  to   Brah’s  (1996)  view  of  globalisation  as  a  "diaspora  space",  unbounded,  not   closed,  and  marking  "an  intersectionality  of  contemporary  conditions  of   transmigrancy  of  people,  capital,  commodities  and  culture"  (p.  160).  They   also  subscribe  to  Laclau’s  (1990,  cited  on  p.  160)  concept  of  (dis)location  as  a   decentred  condition  where  new  and  compound  identities  and  situations   emerge  from  a  diversity  of  locations.  The  use  of  brackets  in  (dis)location   underlines  the  coexistence  location  and  dislocation.  Drawing  on  Derrida   (1981),  they  argue  that  while  (dis)location  is  a  decentring  of  privileged   locating  forces,  a  refusal  to  privilege  a  certain  position  or  voice,  that  

decentring  is  never  complete  as  "locating  processes  will  always  be  present"   (p.  161).    

3.2.3  Appadurai’s  Theory  of  Indigenisation  

Anthropologist  and  cultural  studies  academic  Appadurai  (1990)  offers  a   framework  that  explains  the  multifaceted  landscape  of  globalisation.   Appadurai  focuses  on  the  cultural  aspect  of  globalisation,  in  particular,  the   movement  of  people,  and  media.  He  sees  global  cultural  movements  as   consisting  of  compound,  interrelating  and  disconnected  forces  that  are  not   fixed.  This  theory  contests  the  twofold  centre-­‐periphery  vision  of  world   systems,  in  which  orders  of  western  innovation  infiltrate  and  engross   peripheral  cultures  (Appadurai,  1990).  Appadurai  rejects  homogenisation   and  one-­‐dimensional  descriptions  of  cultural  flows  hypothesising  a  process   of  indigenisation,  which  acclimatizes,  and  transforms,  or,  indigenizes,  a  global   idea,  activity  or  object  when  integrated  into  a  local  community.  He  proposes  a   framework  of  five  "scapes”:  ethnoscape  (the  distribution  of  mobile  

individuals  as  tourists,  refugees,  migrants,  etc.),  technoscape  (the   distribution  of  technology);  finanscape  (the  distribution  of  capital),  

mediascape  (the  distribution  of  information  through  a  variety  of  media),  and   ideoscape  (the  distribution  of  political  ideas  and  values)  (p.  296-­‐  297).  Drifts   occur  among  these  "scapes"  in  "increasingly  non-­‐isomorphic  paths"  (p.  301);   namely,  through  paths  that  are  varied  and  usually  unpredictable  in  their   directions.    

3.2.4  Beck’s  ‘Eduscape’  

Kumari  Beck  attempts  to  theorize  the  internationalisation  of  education,  HE  in   this  case,  in  terms  of  an  additional  scape,  called  an  ‘Eduscape’  which  can  be   conceptualized  as  “the  flow  of  educational  theories,  ideas,  programs,   activities  and  research  in  and  across  national  boundaries”  (2008,  82).  As   "each  [scape]  is  subject  to  its  own  constraints  and  incentives  ...  at  the  same   time  as  each  acts  as  a  constraint  and  a  parameter  for  movements  in  the   others"  (Appadurai,  1996,  35),  it  is  impossible  to  understand  one  in  isolation   without  taking  into  account  the  effects  that  other  scapes  have  on  each  other.   Therefore,  the  flow  of  an  ‘Eduscape’  will  be  affected  or  interconnected  with   ethnoscape  (the  movement  of  people  –  recruitment  of  international  

portrayed  in  the  media),  finanscape  (the  flow  of  money  in  personal  lives,  as   well  as  nationally  and  internationally)  and  ideoscape  (the  business  of  'ideas'   about  education).    

This  notion  thus  goes  well  beyond  definitions,  which  risk  limiting  

internationalisation  to  a  blend  of  intercultural  and  international  influences   on  universities.  If  globalisation  is  considered  as  fluid,  complex,  and  

contradictory—the  internationalisation  of  HE  is  better  understood  in  terms   of  an  ‘Eduscape’  which  ‘reflects  a  multi-­‐flow,  more  nuanced,  diverse  

interaction  with  various  elements  of  the  cultural,  social,  political,  and   economic  dimensions  relating  to  internationalisation”  (Becks,  2008,  83).  

3.2.5  Summary  

The  examples  of  theories  of  globalisation  discussed  above  present  a   multifaceted,  and  intertwined  set  of  forces  and  processes,  often  

contradictory,  involving  local  activities  and  interaction  across  distances,   some  overlapping  with  one  another,  some  dialectical  and  contrary,  

concurrently  standardising  as  well  as  disintegrating.  The  tension  between   global  and  local  as  well  as  space  and  place  is  ever  present.  Globalisation   theory,  then,  helps  to  situate  issues  relating  to  internationalisation  and  to   contextualise  the  inspirations,  motivations  and  social  circumstances  that   influence  it.  As  one  of  the  aims  of  the  internationalisation  of  HE  is  the   enhancement  and  improvement  of  the  learning  experience  itself,  I  will  now   turn  to  a  discussion  of  how  the  curriculum  and  pedagogy  for  a  global   university  might  be  conceptualised.