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follow in their development?” Klein et al. (2011, p. 3) propose a five phase-specific model of psychotherapist development.

The pre-professional phase involves acquiring the basic relational skills of empathy, listening, attunement to feeling, communicating understanding, altruism, the ability to be trusting and trustworthy. In addition, aspiring psychotherapists need to demonstrate psychological

mindedness or emotional intelligence, interest in storytelling, a passion for new learning, and curiosity. Furthermore to succeed at such an emotionally taxing career as psychotherapy, aspiring psychotherapists need to possess determination, tolerance for ambiguity, capacity for delayed and partial gratification and emotional resilience (Klein et al., 2011).

The second developmental phase is of one of mastering the basics (Klein et al., 2011). Alsop (2000) emphasises that the student role that is assumed needs to promote self-directed learning of trainees to equip them with the necessary skills to continue to augment their learning across their career. Here the psychotherapist trainee accumulates professional knowledge

through a comprehensive education of the key subdisciplines of psychology which constitute and intersect within the applied branch of psychotherapy. The trainee also needs to acquire the

necessary relational skills (e.g., Brems, 2001; Egan, 2013; Hatcher, 2015; Hill, 2014), and interview skills (Fernández-Liria, Rodríguez-Vega, Ortiz-Sánchez, Baldor Tubet, & González-

23 Juárez, 2010) that can be utilised therapeutically to connect emotionally with clients and

establish a workable therapeutic relationship.

Klein et al. (2011), and Fall and Sutton (2004) believe supervision plays a critical role in assisting the trainee in developing relational skills, becoming acquainted with and start utilising countertransference and the use of self (e.g., Dewane, 2006; Cheon & Murphy, 2007; Satir, 1987; Wosket, 2009) with clients, as well as inculcating values and ways of conceptualising the process of psychotherapy. Within the second phase, the trainee becomes acquainted with the change process that is encased in psychotherapy as well as becoming initiated into the professional identity and role responsibilities of being a psychotherapist. The trainee starts to develop an awareness of the boundaries and limitations of the therapeutic role together with developing an ethical compass and value system in order to practice effectively. By means of personal psychotherapy, supervision and mentoring an internalisation process is initiated that slowly but nevertheless effectively develops fledging psychotherapists in the ways of the profession. Modelling and identification with psychotherapist elders is deemed as essential to develop into a psychotherapist. Personal psychotherapy, overtly divorced from evaluation of therapeutic competence, remains critical for the novice psychotherapist as it assists in ensuring that the person of the psychotherapist is not being lost but rather utilised within the consultations.

Klein et al. (2011) argue that at this stage of professional development a tentative theoretical orientation and working style of the budding psychotherapist becomes apparent. Novices also begin to be exposed to the general challenges of practice such as un-predetermined termination, strong countertransference reactions and fluctuations in session scheduling. Within this turmoil it is imperative for psychotherapy trainers to equip trainees with a conceptual framework to understand such dynamics in order to manage the therapeutic relationship more effectively and also remain resilient as a psychotherapist.

Phase three is one of consolidation for psychotherapists, across mental health disciplines

(Klein et al., 2011). Use of self by the psychotherapist during sessions begins to take centre stage and an authentic professional self emerges beyond the role of being a psychotherapist (Billow, 2010a, 2010b; Satir, 1987). A psychotherapist needs to interpret how they are going to express themselves in their work beyond their acquired generic learning and skills. Klein et al. (2011), and Billow and Mendelsohn (1987) highlight that ongoing direct experience with clients and regular review of case material within supervision and peer groups provide ample opportunity

24 for growth trajectories for psychotherapists. Self-awareness becomes essential and exposure to the world of rich experiences; in essence to open oneself up to fully embrace the profession. How a newly qualified psychotherapist decides to employ their use of self within their

therapeutic work is a key developmental feature as a psychotherapist’s originality and creativity can now emerge effectively in their unique style of working. Within this phase, psychotherapists have a keen awareness of their limitations and can harness their key assets in choosing the client populations that they can work most effectively with.

Furthermore, psychotherapists are tasked with working with more challenging presenting problems of clients. Supervisors and mentors continue to play an important role in refining the psychotherapist’s skills in addition to drawing from one’s accumulated life experiences and difficulties.

Development in the third phase relies heavily upon the now qualified psychotherapist’s commitment to lifelong learning and maintaining openness to different theoretical approaches and new advances and trends in therapeutic work (Klein et al., 2011). Learning at this time often occurs within supervision as a supervisee or a supervisor, presenting papers at conferences, through teaching others, and reading or attending case conferences (Alsop, 2000). Balancing one’s professional commitments with one’s personal life remains imperative as psychotherapists are not immune to stress, especially as over their lifetime needs, priorities, capabilities and opportunities change (Nissen-Lie & Orlinsky, 2014). With this in mind, Austin et al. (2013), Mullenbach and Skovholt (2004), Skovholt (2001), and Wicks (2008, 2012) emphasise that psychotherapists need to establish and maintain their support systems and find regular ways to rejuvenate from the inherent stress of clinical work in order to remain resilient. Within the context of managed care, professionals internalise ethics and personal values to guide their interventions with a flexibility that takes into account ethical dilemmas/conflicts, and relevant outcomes and recommendations from research that can be applied to practice (Hansen, 1997; Klein et al., 2011). In this phase, psychotherapists report having achieved an established professional identity and personalised view of their work and the therapeutic process.

In phase four, finding one’s unique voice in the profession becomes central (Gabbard & Ogden, 2004, 2009; Vinton, 2008). At this milestone, integration of one’s personal self and professional self needs to achieve a comfortable fit for the psychotherapist. Here the processes of differentiation and deeper integration take place. Individuated psychotherapists exude high levels

25 of authenticity, integrity as well as individuation in their therapeutic work and other areas of their lives. One’s professional identity becomes clarified and the peak of professional experiences is enjoyed. Opportunities to assume a leadership role in the profession are often afforded and taken up. Visibility within the profession may increase with assuming leadership, supervising or teaching roles in assisting the younger professionals (Alsop, 2000). Clinical work becomes in essence ‘polished’ and ‘distinctive’ (Klein et al., 2011).

Phase five of psychotherapist development involves slowing down one’s development

and enjoying the fruits of decades of labour in the field. For many professionals it is a time of reassessment. Decisions of how to end one’s official career and enter retirement are

foregrounded (Hamerman Robbins, 2006; Walcott, 2011). Questions of legacy are reflected upon in the spirit of generativity and ways of dealing with loss are developed (Klein et al., 2011). As seasoned sages (Londono-McConnell & Matthews, 2013) psychotherapists in this phase focus on handing down their knowledge to upcoming psychotherapists in the field through writing books or establishing mentoring relationships as well as reflecting on meaningful therapeutic

relationships that have been experienced during one’s professional career.

Along their developmental path, psychotherapists need to develop and enhance additional competencies (Klein et al., 2011) which include cultural competency, the ability to work with more than one individual and organisational systems and to offer psychological services with other professionals. Cultural competence when working with diverse populations is deemed essential in terms of being sensitive to cultural factors and how such factors impact the course of treatment from assessment to termination (Cary & Marques, 2007; Gibson, Sandenbergh, & Swartz, 2001; Ruane, 2010). Additionally, psychotherapists are called upon to understand and work across different treatment modalities (individuals, couples, families, groups, or

organisations) and to collaborate effectively within and between multidisciplinary teams (MDTs) of mental health professionals. Klein et al. (2011) highlight that often psychotherapists, within a MDT, are tasked with integrating the various treatments of a patient and providing the patient a forum to discuss their treatment and provide psychoeducation regarding the patient’s presenting problems.