The results obtained in this study will contribute with valuable information to broaden the knowledge on Dectes texanus, addressing several topics that will help aid in the understanding of its biology and facilitate management decisions by soybean farmers in Kentucky. This is the first study of D. texanus that aims to understand some biological factors in Kentucky. The project had several goals. The first study was designed to collect information in the life cycle of D. texanus in Kentucky. It revealed comparatively similar results to other states on the United States. Sampling for this insect in several counties of Western and Central Kentucky revealed that D. texanus is a univoltine species. Although, the pupation period varied during the 2- year study, overwintered D. texanus larvae started pupation by mid-June. Duration of adult emergence in Kentucky was shorter than previously reported by other studies in the United States. The sampling conducted in this study (via sweep nets or buckets) shown that D. texanus adults were active until mid-August. Further research is necessary to define a life cycle for D. texanus that incorporates temporal and spatial variation of this species within Kentucky.
During this research a pteromalid parasitoid was found for the first time, and identified to the genus level as Chlorocytus sp. by Dr. Gibson from the Canadian National Collection of Insects. Voucher specimens of this wasps are deposited at the insect collection of the Department of Entomology of the University of Kentucky and at the Canadian Collection of Insects. Current unresolved taxonomic status of this genus prevented further identification to species level. As such, there is lim- ited information about this parasitoid. Field observation allowed the description of Chlorocytus sp. as a gregarious parasitoid of the larval stage of D. texanus. Pupation of Chlorocytus sp. was observed occurring inside the stem of soybean from August
through October. The parasitism rates of 13%, 16.5% and 27% found in this study were comparatively higher by Chlorocytus sp. than from previous studies on other parasitoid species (Tindall et al., 2010; Tindall and Fothergill, 2012) . This new find- ing may represent a potential biological tool to be explored in future studies for the management of D. texanus in soybeans. A better understating of the life cycle and host relations of Chlorocytus sp. is necessary before developing a biological control program for D. texanus.
This thesis also addressed the association of D. texanus and soybean stem diam- eter. Even though D. texanus is capable of fully develop in stem diameter as narrow as 2.5 mm (Niide et al., 2006), this research reports that the probability of finding D. texanus larvae is higher in stem within the range 9 - 11 mm diameter. Infested stems had larger diameter than uninfested stems, suggesting adult oviposition pref- erence for more vigorous plants. This information is valuable for further studies in management of seeding rates and row spacing in soybeans.
In this thesis, there was also a focus in the daily activity of D. texanus. It was successfully determined a daily hourly time range for D. texanus scouting. Timing of scouting was only important during the adult peak activity regardless of sampling method. Using the sweep net method for sampling D. texanus detected higher num- bersof adults from 1000 to 1300 hours, while white plastic buckets detected more adults from 1300 to 1600 hours. This information is even more relevant when as- sociated with the results found in the commercial farms sampled in 2018 and 2019. Soybeans fields can be sampled randomly for the presence of D. texanus throughout the season. This study suggests that edge effect can be detected only in specific date and when fields previously infested with D. texanus are found nearby the soybeans. Studies focusing in efficient predictors of D. texanus emergence would be necessary for developing a site-specific management sampling plans.
D. texanus. Although the use of insecticide seed treatments is ubiquitous, soybean plants grown from seeds treated with imidacloprid provided ambiguous results that may not have biological meaningfulness. Although statistical differences were found in the parameters evaluated (D. texanus presence, larval tunneling and parasitism), they seem unlikely to be related with the use of imidacloprid as seed treatment. Seed treatments usually target early season pests, while D. texanus has shown to start infesting soybeans in Kentucky in mid-June, therefore, insecticide has already been metabolized by the plant. The results suggest that seed treatment is not an efficient practice in the management of D. texanus.
One of the most important parts of this study centered on the effects of D. texanus on yields of soybeans. This part evaluated the effects of D. texanus on the seeds and pods components and the total yield of the soybean. The study was conducted during two seasons using netting cages built from Proteknet Exclusion Insect netting over a frame of two crossed rebar covered with foam pool noodle. In half of these cages, D. texanus were released and the remaining cages were used for excluding plants from D. texanus and of other factors D. texanus that may affect their physiology. This data provided information that shows that D. texanus infestation did not affect physiological yield of soybeans in Western Kentucky. Also, D. texanus feeding in stems did not affect numbers or sizes of pods and seeds. These results suggest that due the nature of D. texanus feeding, pith removal by the larva would only be relevant to seed filling when the soybean is already under stress that affects photosynthesis. Therefore, the study of effect of the amount of stem pith removed by D. texanus in soybeans plants under stress could provide with important information to predict potential losses. Although, yield losses were not statistically significant, the yield of plants with D. texanus present was numerically lower than when it was absent. Considering that there are already multiple sources of losses in soybean, this would be adding to reduce the final yield. Nonetheless, in a field where lodging had already
occurred, plants that would still be standing, but with D. texanus in their stems would also contribute to a greater decrease of soybean final yield.
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