RESOLUCION DIRECTORAL Nº 370-2007-JUS-DNJ-DCMA

From the literature it becomes clear that personal factors refer to the collective aspects that make up the individual and predispose them to form EI. These include, socialisation processes or experience, personality, competencies, thought processes and self-efficacy. The work in this area remains largely empirical and has been summarised below.

Socialisation as described by Van Maanen (1976) is a complex and dynamic process where an individual selects skills, values, norms and beliefs, which in

turn shape their personal identity. Socialisation processes covered in the literature include work history where individuals are introduced and subsequently learn to effectively operate in professional and organisational roles (Merton, 1963; Van Maanen, 1976; Van Maanen & Schein, 1979). Work history in turn can affect an LQGLYLGXDO¶V EHOLHI WKDW WKH\ PD\ EH DEOH WR VXFFHVVIXOO\ VWDUW D EXVLQHVV .DXWRQHQHWDO¶VILQGLQJVLQGLFDWHWKDWDFDUHHULQµEOXHFROODU¶LQGXVWULDO work had a negative impact on EI. Furthermore, this relationship was mediated by low perceptions of self-efficacy as well as a lack of support for enterprising behaviour in their reference group, the latter highlighting the utility of social norms. They also found that the effect of work history is amplified in the latter stages of their career. Conversely, Kolvereid (1996) found that prior self- employment experience had a positive effect on EI via attitudes. Carr & Sequiera (2007) also frame family experiences as another powerful socialisation process. Results suggest a significant direct and indirect effect of prior family business exposure on EI, via mediators including attitudes towards business ownership, perceived family support and entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Kolvereid (1996) also found family background has the same indirect effect on EI in their study.

Krueger (1993) introduces an additional facet to the work history scenario by looking at how prior entrepreneurial experiences affect desirability and feasibility. They found that perceived feasibility was significantly and positively associated ZLWK EUHDGWK RI SULRU HQWUHSUHQHXULDO H[SRVXUH ZKLOH WKH µSRVLWLYHQHVV¶ RI WKH prior experience was significantly and positively associated with desirability. 3HWHUPDQ  .HQQHG\¶V  VWXG\ LQYHVWLJDWHV WKH HIIHFW RI HQWHUSULVH education courses using SEE. The authors reported higher perceptions of desirability and feasibility for starting a business after the course. These authors, OLNH.UXHJHUDOVRORRNDWµSRVLWLYHQHVV¶DQGEUHDGWKRIH[SHULHQFHLQWKHLU study. However unlike Krueger, they found that breadth of experience was not significantly related to perceived feasibility. Additionally perceived desirability and feasibility were correlated in the Peterman & Kennedy (2003) study, whereas WKH\ZHUHQRWUHODWHGLQ.UXHJHU¶VVWXG\7KHVHFRXOGEHDWWULEXWHGWRLVVXHV ZLWKLQWKHVWXG\¶VUHVHDUFKGHVLJQZKHUHWKHSURSHQVLW\WRDFWZDVRPLWWHGDVD variable in the model tested and (2) sampling; the age of the students tested.

As previously mentioned, the entrepreneurial personality was once an area of much focus in entrepreneurship research. Resurgence in researcher interest has occurred by framing personality as indirectly influencing EI via its functional antecedents. Luthje & Franke (2003) reveal that the personality traits, specifically risk-taking propensity and internal locus of control, show a strong and indirect effect on EI via entrepreneurial attitudes. The Obschonka, Silbereisen & Schmitt- Rodermund (2010) study finds a positive relationship between entrepreneurial personality and EI.

)XUWKHU %LUG  -HOLQHN  WKHRULVH WKH HQWUHSUHQHXU¶V UROH DV OHDGHU WR propose five competencies (1) structuring resources; (2) maintaining flexible focus on business issues; (3) developing temporal agility; (4) behavioural IOH[LELOLW\ DQG  LQIOXHQFLQJ RWKHUV WR FRPPLW UHVRXUFHV 2EVFKRQND HW DO¶V (2010) adopt a life span developmental approach and find support that entrepreneurship can be promoted in adolescence via early entrepreneurial competencies like leadership and commercial activities. Bird (1988) conceptualises entrepreneurial thinking styles as underlying structures that support EI. The author refers to the interplay of rational and intuitive thinking with personal contexts like prior entrepreneurial experience, personality characteristics, need for control and abilities in predisposing individuals to EI. Bird goes further and addresses the EI-behaviour relationship (see Figure 3), associating rational thinking with behaviours such as the creation of formal business plans and opportunity analysis and intuitive thinking with opportunistic EHKDYLRXUEDVHGRQµKXQFKHV¶ vision and feelings of a venWXUH¶VSRWHQWLDO

Lastly, Krueger et al. (2000) showed self-efficacy and feasibility to be co-related and, when combined with desirability and a propensity to act, significantly predicted EI. Self-efficacy is defined as one's belief in his or her ability to succeed in specific situations, based on self-perception and external experiences (Bandura, 1986). However self-efficacy is domain specific (Bandura, 1997; 1992; 1989) thus a person can have high self-efficacy in one area, but low self-efficacy in another. As such, the literature is quite specific when referring to entrepreneurial self-efficacy (6(ZKLFK&KHQ*UHHQH &ULFNGHILQHDVDQLQGLYLGXDO¶V belief that they are capable of successfully performing various entrepreneurship- related roles and tasks. In their study Prodran & Drnovsek (2010) use ESE in lieu

of perceived behavioural control and found ESE is positively associated with DFDGHPLF (, DV ZHOO DV (,¶V PRVW LPSRUWDQW SUHGLFWRU &DUU  6HTXLHUD  also found entrepreneurial self-efficacy mediated the relationship between family experiences and EI. Self-efficacy and work history can be seen as most relevant to this thesis. The domain-specific nature of the former and socialisation process of the latter, may prove challenging and reduce perceived feasibility when the highly specialised and institutionalised nature of NHS employees and moreover clinicians, is considered.