Resultado descriptivo de la investigación

He is deemed to be the ultimate and ideal value of Confucianism, and even the cardinal

Chinese cultural value (Chen, 2002). As Mencius commented, harmony between people is more important than good timing and good environment (Mencius, Chapter Gongshun Chou). The practice of the other values (humanity, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, trustworthiness, filial piety, loyalty, empathy) is to achieve he (harmony) within the world. He in Confucianism not only refers to the relationships between human beings, but also the relationship between man, society and nature. It is difficult to find an English translation that matches he perfectly. Although “harmony’ is considered to be the most proper translation of

he, it cannot reflect and reveal the profound meanings connoted in the concept, such as “the

Mean” and “the requirement of li (propriety)”. He in Confucianism is not only the ideal situation of relationships, but also works as a way of thinking and principles of action. He in this study, therefore is translated as “Great Harmony” in order to attempt to express its full connotations.

Four perspectives are especially important for the understanding of Great Harmony. First of all, Great Harmony is the harmony of the system as a whole rather than the harmony between its individual parts. In other words, the system is composed of individual parts, and while there might be conflicts and contradictions between different parts, there is harmony in the whole. The Great Harmony of society, therefore, is built on the harmony of families and individuals. Secondly, Great Harmony is a harmony of contradictions, according with the Doctrine of the Mean which requires “being moderate and never going to extremes”.

Confucius acknowledges contradictions and recognises the harmony between them. He explains this by saying that the constant way does not change, but some adaptation to changing circumstances is necessary. “There was the sage Shun who was indeed wise. He liked to question others and analyze their words. He concealed what was bad in them, and displayed what was good. He took hold of the two extremes, determined the Mean, and employed it in his government” (The Doctrine of the Mean, Chapter 6). “The two extremes” shows that Confucius acknowledges that contradictions exist in respect to everything. These contradictions, although opposite to each other, may still to complete each other. He also

praised utilising contradictions in a way that leads to practical solutions to problems. By adopting the middle way, excess and deficiency may be avoided. Since the desirable way is usually a compromise, people should do neither too much nor too little. The Mean is what Confucius identifies as the essence of a thing. “Junzi (Gentleman) embodies the course of the Mean; Xiaoren (Small-minded man) acts contrary to the course of the Mean.” (The Doctrine

of the Mean, Chapter 2). According to the Mean, people should avoid leaning to either side,

going too far, or going not far enough. The gentleman is perfectly impartial, for he can serve as a mediator among different people. As for the small-minded man, he goes against the Mean and gangs up with other scoundrels for selfish interests, and even defies his superiors. The Mean is regarded as the highest virtue through which to reconcile contradictions and thus to “reach the central harmony”.

Third, Great Harmony is not the denial of change and diversity. It is a relative stable and balanced situation that enables change, rather than a dead dogma. What is more, Great Harmony encourages diversities that can be balanced. Simply agreeing with others without moral or practical principles is not considered to be Great Harmony and thus should be rejected. As Confucius said, “The gentleman seeks harmony with others but without simply agreeing with them. The small-minded man echoes others but without agreement within” or “The gentleman is affable, but not adulatory; the small-minded man is adulatory, but not affable” (The Analects of Confucius, Chapter 13). Confucius is attempting to prevent the old uniformity from collapsing by conciliating the contradictions at a historical juncture. “Affability”, therefore, is compromise and conciliation. Great Harmony requires people to maintain harmonious relationships even though they may have different views. “Harmony” and “identity” are different. Achieving harmony is like cooking, which uses water, fire, salt and several kinds of sauces to make food. Only by mixing different ingredients together can the cook adjust the taste properly. So it is with social and political affairs. As for different opinions, be they from the ruler or from ministers there ought to be expressed directly. Only when the ruler and his ministers can discuss these opinions with each other can a situation be brought about in which affairs are conducted smoothly and the common people are peaceful. Otherwise, there can be stagnation.

Fourth, Great Harmony can only be achieved through the practice of the Confucian virtues. As discussed in previous sections, ren (humanity) is the fundamental virtue of

love and treat others with humaneness, a harmonious relationship between oneself and others can be established. As long as people “Consider yi (Justice) in front of Benefit”, there would not be too many conflicts of interest. The ideal state of application of li (propriety), the rule of proper conduct and good manners, is the achievement of a harmonious social relationship. With zhi (knowledge and wisdom), people can have a better understanding of themselves, other people, society, nature, and then the world. And thus people know how to position themselves in the world, how to behave themselves, and how to treat others. With xin (trustworthiness), people can trust others and be trusted. With zhong (loyalty), one avoids the threat of betrayal among family, friends and organisations. So long as people treat others the same as they treat themselves according to the requirements of shu (empathy), there would be more satisfaction and agreement than resentment. The harmony of family can be realised through filial children (xiao). If people can practise self-cultivation, the moral level of human beings will be promoted.

Four harmonious relationships are identified as being achieved in Great Harmony in Confucianism: the internal harmony of the human body, the harmony among different persons, the harmony between a person and society, and the harmony between human beings and nature. This refers not only to the physical aspect but also the mental aspect. Only when the internal harmony of the human body is achieved can people be healthy, and thus behave properly and get on well with others or build harmonious relationships with others. The harmony between a person and society requires people to balance their interests with the needs of society. In other words, it requires people to practise self-cultivation to promote their moral standards.

The harmonious relationship between nature and human beings is described as an ideal situation, which is called “Unity of Heaven and man”. In Confucianism, the supreme dominator of nature and human society is interpreted as tian (Heaven). Confucian scholars believe that nature moves and changes according to the laws inherent in itself which is called “The Way of Heaven”. As long as people follow the natural laws, they will obtain a good result; otherwise, they must suffer disaster (Xunzi, Chapter 17). As for the relationship between human beings and nature, the virtues are extended to the way human beings treat nature. For example, the virtue ren (humanity) is extended from “love towards other people” to “love towards other beings”. Confucian environmental ethics as they relate to sustainable

6.6 Conclusion

Although it has been criticised and changed, Confucianism is the core component of the Chinese value system. It affects the Chinese people significantly and still plays a key role in the formulation of their values and the guidance of behaviour. In this study Confucianism refers to the ideas, thoughts and values reflected in the classic works by Confucius and his followers, as well as the understandings and interpretations in the history, excluding exaggerated or biased interpretations and critiques of Confucian ideas and values. Theme nine of conceptual research is Synthesising concepts, and thus synthesises existing knowledge of the classic Confucian works and the interpretations of later scholars. Eleven key Confucian values are identified and extracted. Ren (Humanity) is deemed to be the source of all virtues and as being embodied in the other values. Yi (Righteousness or Justice) is suggested to be considered in front of benefits. Li (Propriety) refers to all the socially accepted regulations of proper conduct and good manners. Zhi (Wisdom) emphasises knowledge and learning. Xin (Trustworthiness) is the virtue which underpins the order and harmony of society. Zhong (Loyalty) requires the devotion to family, friends, organisation and the country. Shu (Empathy) encourages people to treat others in the same way they treat themselves. Xiao (Filial Piety) is the obedience, respect, affection and obligation towards the parents. Xiuji (Self-cultivation) is self-conscious moral cultivation by adopting the rules of all the virtues. The chuangyuan guan (long-term orientation) of Confucianism can be reflected by the emphasis on a target, planning and preparation. He (Great Harmony) is the ideal situation arising from the achievement of the other virtues.

The aim of this synthesis of the eleven Confucian values is to translate them into the understanding of sustainable tourism. This translation will be presented in Chapter Nine along with a discussion of how they relate to each other. Chapter Seven is going to adopt the same structure as this chapter in terms of understanding Taoism and its values.