La revuelta contra el formalismo.

In a general sense, technology refers to any “machinery and equipment developed from scientific knowledge” (Oxford University Press, 2018b, p. 750). In biblical times, music training involved vocal and aural teaching without instrumental accompaniment. Primitive wind instruments, created from bird bones that date back to over 40,000 years ago (Turnbull, 2017) have been discovered. The Christian church played a major role in western music education, largely for the purpose of religious ritual. Although vocal and aural in nature, Beckstead (2001) points out that using technologies as teaching aids began to appear many centuries ago:

One thousand years ago, the Benedictine monk Guido d'Arezzo began teaching singing with visual aids for pitch notations, an early precursor to the methodology that dominates music classrooms today (pp. 44-45).

Examples of instrumental advances include the ancient Egyptian harp in 3000 BC, which led to the development of the harpsichord in 1397, and eventually the piano in 1709 (Turnbull, 2017). As time progressed, advances in music technology have become more prevalent. Seventeenth and eighteenth-century examples include the player piano, wind-up music boxes and barrel organs (Williams & Webster, 2006). While these devices were mechanical in nature, more recent examples of music technology include computer tablets, digital watchbands and portable personal music players such as Smartphones (Williams & Webster, 2006). These authors identify five stages of music technology development:

1. Period I (1600 – mid 1800): Mechanical devices such as music boxes, calliopes, organs and player pianos.

2. Period II (mid 1800 – early 1900): Electrical devices such as the Hammond Organ and Cahill’s Telharmonium.

3. Period III (early 1900 – mid 1900): Electromagnet and vacuum tube devices such as juke boxes, tape recorders, amplifiers and electronic instruments like the Theremin.

4. Period IV (mid 1900s – 1970s): Transistorised devices such as Moog and ARP synthesizers and DEC PDP-8 minicomputers.

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5. Period V ((1970s - present): digital portable devices: MIDI software and hardware, drum machines, Digital Audio Workstations [DAW], internet, cloud technologies, smart phones and mini tablets.

With the exception of the piano, older mechanical technologies are of little use in music education, however more recent technology are having a profound impact (Beckstead, 2001). Webster (2016a) hypothesises that internet-based materials for teaching and learning music has been one of the most important educational trends in recent times (Webster, 2016a), with significant benefits for teachers and students to incorporate the internet and new technologies into schools and tertiary teacher training institutions (Reese & Hickey, 2016).

Williams and Webster (2006) argue that the digital revolution transformed the way audio is produced through extremely high-speed manipulation of 0 and 1 digital information. Micro-electronic circuits are used to transform digital data into waveform signals for

loudspeakers or headphones in order to transmit sounds in understandable formats directly to the human ear. Conversely, these circuits can capture waveform signals from microphones and convert them into digital data that can easily be stored or shared with other digital devices or servers such as the internet: “Digital audio is the most pervasive method used today to represent sound and music” (Williams & Webster, 2006, p. 77).

Portable, powerful digital software and hardware have become an affordable and accessible means for people to create and share musical ideas (Williams & Webster, 2006). At the same time, portable devices like the iPad and iPhone have transformed the music education landscape:

The iPad itself inspires creativity and hands-on learning with features you won’t find in any other educational tool and on a device that students really want to use (Kuzmich, 2012, p. 43).

Mobile technology has created new and imaginative ways for educators to facilitate learning (Heflin, Shewmaker, & Nguyen, 2017). Educators have an opportunity to develop philosophical approaches to the integration of technologies into teaching and learning (Southcott & Crawford, 2011). Crawford (2013) claims that technology is transforming teaching strategies in the 21st century:

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The recognised benefits of technology for the use of music education have resulted in collaborative projects and learning and teaching that is not constricted by walls or location. Music education can be accessible to all young people through a combination of social media, blogging and interactive creative musical activities to engage students in all locations, including rural and remote areas. In this 21st century classroom, music education includes online resources, digital learning, in-school workshops, online master classes and live concert streaming where a range of musical styles are explored (p. 717).

Music technologies help foster creative play and higher-order thinking in young children. Given that digital technologies are becoming increasingly more accessible, they are also influencing students’ engagement in areas such as instrumental music (Kraus, 2012) and developing ongoing understandings through creative work where “Learning can occur anytime, anywhere” (Merrick, 2011, p. 17). Williams and Webster (2006) examine the types of educational approaches that include technology to support learning. These are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Types of Educational Software

Software Applications Examples

Drill and practice MiBAC Music lessons, Piano Suite

Flexible practice MacGAMUT, Practica Musica

Guided instruction Music Ace, eMedia Guitar Method

Game-based Musicus, Pianist Performance

Exploratory/creative Band-in-box, Super Duper Music Looper Teacher resource Sibelius Notes, Sibelius Instruments Internet-based Arts Edge, New York Philharmonic Kidzone

The interactive nature of tablets like the iPad has increased the level of engagement and learning experiences for students with looping technology such as GarageBand (Apple, 2017a; Kuzmich, 2012). Kuzmich (2012) states:

The iPad environment can offer distinct, dynamic, and interactive instruction that students will enthusiastically embrace. As music educators, we need to embrace technology and understand how to utilize these new tools to inspire our 21st century students (p. 46).

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GarageBand is a looping technology that can be used for performing solo or with

other instruments, improvising melodies and rhythms, composing and arranging music, recording voices and acoustic sound sources, and storing or sharing audio files (Apple, 2017a; Kuzmich, 2012; Williams & Webster, 2006).