Riesgos de liquidez y de mercado

Before outlining the remainder of this research study, there are a few significant concepts that need to be clarified.

1.5.1 Natural Sciences

Natural Sciences is a learning area (subject) that forms part of the National Curriculum

Statement Grades R - 12 (NCS) in South African education. The different elements of the

Natural Sciences Curriculum aim to provide a broad introduction for learners, to the specialisation areas of the sciences in the Further Education and Training (FET) phase, including Life Sciences and Physical Sciences. Natural Sciences is a learning area which is incorporated into the curriculum from the Foundation phase (Grades R to 3), to the Intermediate Phase (Grades 4 to 6) and continues to be compulsory for Senior Phase learners (Grades 7, 8, and 9) (Department of Education, 2002a). Learners may then choose to continue with either or both of the science subjects (Life Sciences and Physical Sciences) beyond Grade 9 (Barker, Cohen, Doubell, Mgoqi, Mkhwanazi & Mzolo, 2006; Department of Education, 2002a). The choice of learning areas (subjects) when progressing into Grade 10 is usually a decision based on career interest, and learners tend to decide on learning areas to continue with to Grade 12, based on the requirements they need for particular career fields and/or tertiary education programs (Bholanath, 2004). Natural Sciences therefore serves the purpose of enabling learners to interact with, and make sense of, the world in scientific

concepts, as well as prepare those learners who will continue with either (or both) of the sciences in the FET phase (Grades 10, 11 and 12), and after school (Department of Education, 2002a).

The Natural Sciences Curriculum is made up of four 'Knowledge Areas', which are used to organise the Physical Sciences, Life Sciences and Earth Sciences (Geography) elements of the subject. These Knowledge Areas include: Life and Living; Matter and Materials; Energy and Change; and Earth and Beyond. Despite being listed as such, these Knowledge Areas are not meant to be dealt with independently. Rather, the themes within each Knowledge Area are linked to form the broad subject Natural Sciences and are intended to be used interdependently in lessons (Barker et al., 2006; Department of Education, 2002a).

There are three general Learning Outcomes (LOs) incorporated into the Grade 9 Natural Sciences curriculum. These include: LO 1: Scientific Investigations; LO 2: Constructing Science Knowledge; LO 3: Science, Society and the Environment (Department of Education, 2002a).

Within each of these three outcomes, there are numerous cognitive and practical skills that need to be developed (Department of Education, 2002a). These are discussed in more detail in Section 2.4.

1.5.2 Grade 9 learner

In the South African school system, high school ranges from Grade 8 (Senior Phase) to Grade 12 (FET Phase). At the end of Grade 9, learners can decide whether to continue to Grade 12, or attend a college or training institution, or leave the school system entirely (Department of Education, 2002a).

In Grade 9, most learners are in their adolescent years. Smith, Cowie and Blades (2003), as well as Meyer (2005) understand adolescence as a transition between childhood and adulthood. This is marked by biological changes discernible by the onset of puberty (Meyer, 2005). There are numerous developmental tasks during adolescence, such as developing a self-identity, gaining autonomy from parents, gender role identification, and internalising values and morals (Meyer, 2005). Development in many areas (physically, emotionally, socially), including development on a cognitive level, tends to be rapid during adolescence. Vygotsky's theory on childhood development emphasises that children learn in relation to the

construction of meaning associated with their social interactions in their environment, which in turn, influences their development (Mahn, 2003). He sees the holistic child developing in stages that are centred on critical periods, in which meaning is constructed. These critical periods are characterised by "abrupt and major shifts and displacements, changes, and discontinuities in the child's personality" (Mahn, 2003, p. 122). Vygotsky argues that changes in the mental structures and functions form the essence of development, and when these are mastered, development progresses to the subsequent level (Mahn, 2003).

According to Vygotsky, adolescence (from about 13 years old) represents a period where a new form of mental functioning develops through "higher formations that are the foundation of the whole conscious existence of man" (Mahn, 2003, p. 132). In adolescence, it is the first time that an individual begins to master the process of forming concepts (a new and higher form of intellectual activity). These changes bring about other significant effects such as an effect on the adolescent's perception and impulsive shift to think in concepts. Subsequent changes in verbal thinking ability allow them to make more "systematic, ordered, categorical" pictures of reality, unlike younger children who often do not understand the interconnectedness between systems (Mahn, 2003, p. 133).

In addition to this, adolescents start to understand the complexity of 'self' through reflection and introspection. This leads to the awareness of one's own internal mental processes, contributing to the basic change in an adolescent's perception and internalisation of social experiences. This occurs in conjunction with an adolescent's consciousness of his/her potential to control his/her thoughts and actions, which enables him/her to conceptualise activities and their consequences, and therefore plan them, in ways that younger children cannot. Essentially, the adolescent phase is characterised by self-awareness and the full development of consciousness, both of which are central to metacognition (Mahn, 2003). This implies that it is at this age that metacognition can really begin to develop effectively. As adolescents, any Grade 9 learner is most likely experiencing the changes mentioned above. Besides for the developmental tasks associated with each critical period, another important task for a Grade 9 learner, as mentioned above, is that of making the choice which subjects to continue with into the FET phase (up until the end of Grade 12) of schooling, based on his/her orientation towards certain careers and the relevant tertiary institution programme requirements (Bholanath, 2004). This consequential decision only emphasises the

importance of the Grade 9 year for preparing learners accordingly within each Learning Area, so that they can make informed choices with regards to their subjects for Grade 10.

1.5.3 Metacognition

Metacognition is understood to be a higher-order cognitive skill which is used "to monitor and regulate cognitive processes" such as thinking, learning, reasoning, comprehension and problem solving (Woolfolk, 2010, p. 270). In general, metacognition involves an awareness of the various factors involved in the learning situation. It involves knowing about one's prior knowledge, being aware of which prior knowledge is necessary for the learning situation at hand, and how to use this prior knowledge effectively (Guterman, 2003; Manning & Glasner, 1996).

According to Hartman (2002b), there are two types of metacognition, strategic knowledge (also known as knowledge of cognition) and executive management strategies (also known as regulation of cognition). Strategic knowledge involves the application of declarative

knowledge which involves knowing what to do when performing a task. This involves

understanding oneself as learner, what factors influence your own learning and memory, as well as the skills, strategies and resources needed to perform a task. Procedural knowledge is about knowing how to use these strategies (identified with declarative knowledge), and self-

regulatory knowledge involves knowing 'when' and 'why' to apply the skills, procedures and

strategies (Woolfolk, 2010; Yore & Treagust, 2006).

Executive management strategies on the other hand aim to regulate thinking and learning, and they involve three essential skills which allow one to do so. These are planning, monitoring, and evaluating. Planning involves making decisions as to "how much time to give to a task, which strategies to use, how to start, what resources to gather, what order to follow, what to skim and what to give intense attention to, and so on" (Woolfolk, 2010, p. 270). Monitoring involves checking one's progress along the way, whether one is maintaining short-term and long-term goals, and determining whether one is still 'on track' for the task. Evaluating is about appraising the processes used, and the outcomes of one's thinking and learning (Gourgey, 2002; Hartman, 2002b; Hessels et al., 2009; Woolfolk, 2010; Yore & Treagust, 2006).

For the purpose of this study, metacognition is viewed from a social constructivist perspective. Research has shown that metacognition can be taught (Joseph, 2010), and

therefore one needs to look at the mediation needed to incorporate metacognition into a learner's zone of proximal development (Blanton, Moorman & Trathen, 1998).

This section offers a small summary of the major aspects of metacognition, so that the reader has a basic understanding of the concept on reading the remainder of the thesis. More detail will be provided about the concept of metacognition in Section 2.6.