In order to understand the differences between speech and writing, Chafe (1985) suggests that differences in the processes of speaking and writing have led to grammatical differences between speech and writing. Chafe explains that written language fosters more detachment than speech, which is face-to-face and usually more highly socially involved.
Chafe is aware that these are, in reality, poles of a continuum, and that there are uses of spoken and written language that do not fit these characterisations, for example, lectures as a form of integrated and detached speech; letters as a form of fragmented and involved writing; and literature where involvement features are used for aesthetic effects.
Different kinds of communication are situated – along the speech-writing continuum – as illustrated below. Please note that they also depend on social and professional contexts in which they occur.
Table 2.4: Speech-Writing Continuum
Speech
In-between speech and
writing Writing Face-to-face conversation Narration Formal lecture Presentation Journal article Novel
Telephone On-line chat
SMS/Text Fax Email
Formal letter
To-do/Reminder Memoir Journal
In order to explain the shift from speech to writing (see Table 2.5), Vygotsky (1934) argues that speech has a different function from that of writing. He explains that writing ‘… requires symbolisation of the sound image …’ (Vygotsky, 1934:98-99). He goes on to explain that writing is also addressed to an absent or imaginary person. Depending on dynamic situations, it can also be addressd to no one in particular. Vygotsky (1934:99) says that the writing is decontextualised and done in isolation.
Vygotsky further explains that when speaking, a person is not aware of the sounds he or she makes as well as the mental functions he or she uses. When writing the person has to be aware of the relationship between phonemes and graphemes. In addition, words have to be used to form sentences. Hence writing requires conscious work.
I would like to point out that having an awareness of the sound structure (phonics) is almost impossible for Deaf people. Since Deaf people cannot hear sounds, they have to figure out how to read and write through visual cues. This is to say that teachers have to use methods other than phonics for teaching reading to Deaf children. One approach to teaching reading, for example, is whole word recognition (flashcards). I will elaborate on different approaches for teaching literacy in the section on the writing pedagogies for English as a Second Language (ESL).
According to Vygotsky, the grammar of thought is not the same as either the grammar of writing or of speech (Vygotsky, 1934). Vygotsky tries to understand the language of thought, but theorising the nature of inner speech. While writing takes place after inner speech and presupposes its existence, speech takes place before inner speech in the course of the development. For Vygotsky, inner speech is
…not the interior aspect of external speech – it is a function in itself. It still remains speech, i.e., connected with words. But while in external speech thought is embodied in words, in inner speech words die as they bring forth thought. Inner speech is largely thinking in pure meanings. It is a dynamic, shifting, unstable thing, fluttering between word and thought, the two more or less stable, more or less firmly delineated components of verbal thought. Its true nature and place can be understood only after examining the next plan of verbal thought, the one still more inward than inner speech (Vygotsky, 1934:149).
Vygotsky (1934:100) further explains that
inner speech is condensed, abbreviated speech. Written speech is deployed to its fullest extent and more complete than oral speech. Inner speech is almost entirely predicative because the situation, the subject of thought, is always known to the thinker. Writing, on the contrary, must explain the situation fully in order to be intelligible. The change from maximally compact inner speech to maximally detailed writing requires what might be called deliberate semantics – deliberate structuring of the web of the meaning.
I will elaborate on the use of inner speech for Deaf people in the section of writing pedagogies of English as a Second Language (ESL).
Like Vygotsky (1934), Kress (1994:8) regards speech and writing as ‘two modes of language with distinctive grammatical and textual structures and organization’. Speech, on the one hand, is made of ‘chains of coordinated, weakly subordinated and adjoined clauses’ (Kress, 1994:33). It also uses redundancy, pauses and hesitations to leave allowances for the different mode of reception and to provide time for listeners to process the information. (Kress, 1994:33) There may be brief pauses between words or sentences.
Also, speech allows thinking time for the speaker and processing time for the listener (Kress, 1994).
Writing, on the other hand, has ‘…full subordination and embedding…’ (Kress, 1994:33). In certain regional and social groups, the structure of writing has a strong influence on the structures of the speech of these groups (Kress, 1994:34). Kress (1994:35) also explains that speaking is learned before writing.
According to Raimes (1983), the differences between speaking and writing are that:
Speech Writing
is acquired in the first few years of life is learned
has dialect variations usually has standard forms of grammars,
syntax and vocabulary
is conducted by using voices and bodies to convey ideas
is conducted by using words on paper to express meaning
uses pauses and intonation uses punctuation
is pronounced is spelled
is spontaneous and unplanned takes time and is planned
is carried out to present listeners is aimed at an absent audience
is usually informal and repetitive is more formal and compact
uses simple sentences uses complex sentences
Signed languages are similar to speech with respect to the above, but the difference is that signers use hands to convey their ideas and facial expressions to emphasise pauses and intonation. They sign, instead of pronouncing. Because signed languages have no written form, Deaf people have to learn a second language, for example English, in order to write.
Halliday (1989:61) shows that speaking is no less important than writing. The two serve different purposes. He argues that in a literate society, the functions
of language are shared out between speaking and writing. He argues that spoken language is as organised as the written. It is just as complex in a different way. The complexity of the written language is ‘static’ and ‘dense’ (Halliday, 1989:62). That of the spoken language is ‘dynamic’ and ‘intricate’ (Halliday, 1989:62). Halliday insists that the powers of spoken and written language balance each other. However, Halliday is aware that in a non- literate society, spoken language performs all the functions that language has to serve, nothing more or less.
I would say that both signed language and writing in another language are both vital in literate socieities. Since Deaf people cannot monitor and hear their own voices, they use signed language to communicate among themselves and with hearing people who also sign. In addition, Deaf people write in order to communicate with mainstream society that does not sign.
According to Halliday (1989:61), written language displays a higher ratio of lexical items (content words) than grammatical items (function words). The difference of this distinction results in varying density for the presentation of the information. Written language has higher density; spoken language is comparatively sparse (Halliday, 1989:62). To exemplify, the following spoken sentence is taken from the book ‘Relocating the Personal’ (Kamler, 2001:104- 105):
There are many reasons of why football has grown in Australia today. The sponsors which stand by their teams and support them. The media which you would find at every important match and the costs, of which is usually covered by either the public or their personal sponsors. (L:18; G:30)
If this sentence were to occur in formal academic writing, it would read as follows:
There are many reasons why football has grown in Australia and these include the sponsorship of teams, the media coverage of important matches, the attractive lifestyle of football players and high financial returns. (L:18; G:16)
Lexical density is created by the use of nominalisation. In analysing the writing samples in the data, it will be important to see where the research participants’ writing is located on the speech-writing continuum. Unfortunately, I will not be able to do this because the research setting led to speech forms in the writing but that will come later.