Segunda etapa. Efectos mínimos o limitados

The methodological stance adopted by the researcher has by necessity been influenced by changing job roles and the transfer from one organisation to

another. This in itself is not considered to be a detrimental factor but has necessitated a modification of the methodological stance taken. As a consequence this transfer of job roles has resulted in a change from a single to multi-site ethnographical study. For the full time researcher, access to such an environment and length of time available to fully integrate into a new culture is considered a down side of the ethnographic approach. Obviously being an employee within both of these organisations overcomes these difficulties. In addition one of the drawbacks of being a part time student is the length of time required to complete the process. However in this case the additional amount of time required was utilised to good effect in providing a more detailed and richer picture of the proceedings.

In his study of foreign correspondents across the globe, Hannerz (2003) reviews the advantages and disadvantages of multi sit ethnography. Hannerz (2003, p.206) argues that the term ‘multilocal’ (multi-site) projects is a little misleading in that they ‘commonly draw on some problem or some formulation of a topic which is significantly translocal, not to be confined within a single place’. He goes on to state that ‘the sites are connected with one another in such ways that the relationships between them are as important for this formulation as the relationships within them; the fields are not some mere collection of local units’ (Hannerz, 2003, p.206). This is certainly the case within this study, as Organisation X and Organisation Y are two of eight Foundations Trusts (FT) within N.E. Path. More significantly within this configuration the two Trusts are geographically situated in close proximity. As a result patient care pathways overlap and patient referrals between the two organisations for specialist care including cancer services and major spinal trauma are common.

In addition to these connections the private sector supplier also links Organisation X and Organisation Y by providing the majority of technology and

reagents used within both organisations. Strategies to follow these

‘connections, associations, and putative relationships’ are considered ‘at the very heart of designing multi-sited ethnographic research’ (Marcus, 1995, p.97).

Hannerz (2003, p.208) states that one of the criticisms of multi-site ethnography is the question of ‘depth and breadth of relationship’ in that this form of research may be viewed as a dilution of the original long-term anthropological studies. For the reasons highlighted above, in that the researcher is both an employee and part-time student, these factors do not appear to be as relevant within the context of this research.

The issue of ‘site temporality’ Hannerz (2003, p.209) or ‘time limitations’

(Freidberg, 2001, p.263) is more cause for concern. The last five years have seen unprecedented changes within the NHS from political reform to economic crisis. This study is, however, concerned with the performativity of reality in order to gain an understanding of the reconfiguration taking place, rather than a direct comparison of the two organisations. The affordances and constraints imposed on each organisation will be assessed in light of these external pressures. Other logistical considerations such as ‘access, funding and other resources available’ (Freidberg, 2001, p.263) were not a limitation during this study.

4.7 Methods

Rather than produce a definitive definition of ethnography, applicable to all contexts, Atkinson and Hamersley (2007, p.3) focus on what ethnographers actually do as highlighted by the following passage:

‘In terms of data collection, ethnography usually involves the researcher participating overtly or covertly, in people’s daily lives for an extended period of time, watching what happens, listening to what is said, and/or asking questions through informal and formal interview, collecting documents and artefacts – in fact, gathering whatever data are available to throw light on issues that are the emerging focus of inquiry’.

The principal methods for collecting primary data for qualitative research are shown in Table 11 below:

Table 11. Techniques Used for Qualitative Data Collection adapted from Thietart et al. (2001).

TECHNIQUE METHOD EMPLOYED

Observation Participant observation Non-participant observation Unobtrusive methods Physical traces

Primary archives Secondary archives Simple observations Behaviour records Interviewing Individual interviews

Group interviews

Within this research all three techniques have been utilised. Primary data was collected via participant observation of the organisations under investigation, subsidised by open access to primary and secondary archives. Within this context primary archives were considered to consist of documents available to the researcher/manager within the organisational domain, such as business cases, tender documentation, contractual information and the minutes of meetings. Secondary archives within this environment were considered to consist of digital e-mail, received personally by the researcher manager. In addition a number of semi-structured interviews were undertaken when

necessary to gain an insight into the wider issues concerning pathology managers in the region and our third party colleagues from the primary supplier identified during the course of this research.

The following section provides a critical review of the techniques highlighted above and including a review of template analysis utilised to analyse the primary data from the interviews.

4.7.1 Observation

According to Gray (2009, p.396) observation is not simply a question of ‘looking at something and noting down the facts’ it is a complex combination of sensation (sight, sound, touch, smell, and even taste) and perception.

Observation thus involves the ‘systematic viewing of people’s actions and the recording, analysis and interpretation of their behaviour’ (Gray, 2009, p.397).

One of the benefits and consequently drawbacks of the technique, however, is that it is open to individual interpretation of meaning. On the plus side however observation techniques allow the researcher to get ‘beyond people’s opinions and self-interpretations of their attitudes and behaviours, towards an elevation of their actions in practice’ (Gray, 2009, p.397), attributes deemed essential for this study.

The primary downside of the technique is however interpretation of what is observed which may be influenced by the ‘mental constructs of the researcher including (values, motivations, prejudices and emotions)’ (Grey, 2009, p.397).

A second concern is that, stationed among those being observed, the researcher may begin to actually influence events. It this case the researcher is employed to manage the organisations under investigation and in a position of authority is paid to influence results, which poses a methodological challenge.

In addition, it has to be considered that the mere presence of a senior manager in a working environment may influence the behaviour of staff.

Within this context it could be argued that the primary role of the researcher in the work place is that of manager rather than researcher. Indeed most of the members of staff are ignorant or indifferent to the manager’s involvement within research and so as far as possible the observations have been undertaken in as natural an environment as possible.

A third methodological concern is that although observational data is often rich in evidence it can be difficult to extract themes and concepts. In this instance observational data will be supported by the information provided by other unobtrusive methods.