In various kinds of group activities, the teacher's role moves from engineer or director to facilitator or resource person, and many leadership functions transfer from the teacher to the students. Although there is no clear research showing that the group techniques correlate with the student achievement, it is assumed that under appropriate circumstances, instruction in these groups can be effective rather than relying on the teacher as the major source of learning. It is also assumed that many kinds of group activities 1) help the teachers deal with differences among learners, 2) provide opportunity for the students to plan and develop special projects on which groups can work together, and 3) increase the student interaction and socialization. In short, they achieve social and emotional as well as cognitive purposes.
There are many ways for teachers to arrange activity in groups. Different group arrangements, also called group projects, result in different roles and responsibilities for the students and teacher.
Possible group projects/activities:
1. A committee is a small group working together in a common venture for a given period of time. Using committees succeeds to the extent that members grow socially in the group process and are able to accomplish cognitive tasks apart from close teacher direction. A committee representative may be chosen to report to the entire class.
2. Brainstorming is a technique to elicit large numbers of imaginative ideas or solutions to open-ended problems. Group members are encouraged to expand their thinking beyond the routine sort of suggestions. Everyone's suggestions are accepted without judgment, and only after all the ideas are put before the group do the members begin to focus on a possible solution.
3. A buzz session provides an open environment in which group members can discuss their opinions without fear of being "wrong" or being ridiculed for holding an unpopular position. Buzz session can also serve to clarify a position or bring new information before the group to correct misconceptions.
4. The debate and panel are more structured in format than some of the other small group activities. In a debate, two positions on a controversial issue are presented formally; each debater is given a certain amount of time to state a position, to respond to questions from others in the group, and to pose questions. The panel is used to present information on an issue and, if possible, to arrive at group consensus. Several students (three to eight) may sit on a panel. Each panel member may make an opening statement, but there are no debates among panel members.
5. A symposium is not as structured as a debate and not as relaxed as the give-and-take exchange of a panel. The symposium is appropriate for airing topics that divide into clear-cut categories or viewpoints. Participants are expected to represent a particular position and try to convince others, but the method of interaction is more spontaneous and no one is timed as in a debate.
6. Role playing and improvisation are techniques for stepping outside of one's own role and feelings and placing oneself in another's situation. Role playing also serves as a technique for exploring intergroup attitudes and values.
7. Fish bowl is a technique in which group members give their full attention to what one individual wants to express. The whole group sits in a circle. Two chairs are placed in the center of the circle. A member who wants to express a point of view does so while sitting in one of the chairs. Any other member who wants to discuss the view takes the other chair, and the two converse while the others listen. To get the discussion, the students must wait for one chair to be vacated.
8. A critiquing session is the examination of members' work by the group. The group offers constructive comments and suggestions about ways to improve the work.
9. Round table is a quiet, informal group, usually four or five students who sit around a table conversing either among themselves (similar to buzz session) or with an audience (similar to a forum).
10. A forum is a panel approach in which members interact with an audience.
11. Jury trial is a technique in which the class simulates a court room. It is excellent for evaluating issues.
12. Majority-rule decision making is a technique for arriving at an agreement or selecting an individual for a task when members of the group hold different opinions. It involves discussion, working out compromises, and making conclusions or decisions based on the wishes of the majority.
13. Consensus decision-making requires that group members agree. Consensus requires that the views of all members of the group be considered, since the group must arrive at a conclusion or agree on a plan of action.
14. A composite report synthesizes and summarizes the views or information of all members of a group. Rather than a series 'of reports by individual members, one report is presented in written or oral form to the class or teacher.
15. An agenda is a formal method of organizing a group task. The students or the teacher can plan the agenda, and members of the group must keep it.
16. The seminar group is a deliberative body looking for a solution to the problem based on readings, experiences, and minds of its participants. The discussion is on an issue, problem, situation, or proposition for which an answer, a solution, or a policy is formulated.
Using group techniques in flexible and imaginative ways can have important instructional advantages.
1. They give the students some control over their own personal adjustment as well as over their cognitive learning.
2. They allow the teacher to plan different lessons to meet the needs and interests of different groups.
3. They permit the teacher to vary instructional methods, to plan interesting and active activities.
4. They supplement the lecture, questioning, practice, and drill methods.
The key to the success of group projects is the way the teacher organizes them. Flexible space and furniture undoubtedly make them easier. All of the group techniques if planned and implemented properly, tend to promote five group oriented characteristics in the classroom:
1. task structures that lend themselves to cooperation among group members
2. a chance for students to work at their own pace, but think in terms of group goals
3. the development of social and interpersonal skills among participants - the students learn to communicate with and trust one another
4. a reward structure based on the performance of the group
5. a variety of team building strategies - the students learn to work together, appreciate individual diversities, and capitalize on individual strengths.
Based on a five-year longitudinal study, Daniel Solomon (as cited by Ornstein, 1992) lists five major behaviors that should evolve with an effective group project.
1. Cooperative activities in which the students work on learning tasks or play together.
2. Regular participation in helping and sharing activities.
3. Experiencing the positive expectations of others (that is, the group expect members to be considerate, cooperative, take responsibility, help, and share). '
4. Role-playing and other activities designed to enhance children's understanding of other people's needs, intentions, and perspectives.
5. Positive discipline which includes the development and clear communication of rules and norms that emphasizes the individual's rights and responsibilities with respect to others.
David Johnson (1989) points out that when the students, work on group projects, they must learn to disclose their attitudes and behaviors in an honest way:
1. by giving and receiving supportive feedback, 2. by focusing on specific problems, not personalities,
3. by providing feedback that the receiver can understand, and 4. by providing feedback on actions that the receiver can change.
Mutual trust and communication is improved. The giving and receiving of feedback in this way requires courage, understanding, and respect for others and oneself. The teacher should stress that honesty and support are important and can be used to improve or hinder people's attitudes and actions, and therefore they should not be taken' lightly.
Guidelines for Group Activities
In order to organize group activities, the following recommendations are given. They are basically sequential, although each recommendation should be used only if it coincides with the circumstances and teaching style of the teacher.
1. Decide on the group project selectively to enhance objectives and outcomes.
2. Consider social and cognitive purposes (intermixing the students by ability, matching the students and topics, blending personalities, promoting social or racial integration) and potential managerial problems when assigning members to groups.
3. Solicit volunteers for membership in group projects, reserving the right to decide final membership.
4. Go over directions for carrying out each phase of the group activity in writing or orally to the point of redundancy.
5. Explain the role of participants, the way they are to interact, and whatever problems might occur. Define roles, interactions, and problems through examples and preliminary simulations.
6. Be sure that individuals can function socially, emotionally, and intellectually in their roles as members of a particular group.
7. Allot class time for groups to organize, plan, and develop some of their projects or assignments, with supervision as needed.
8. Be sure a group is able to function effectively and do a good job before asking it to perform for the class.
9. Allow group members to decide on the nature of the class presentation, within general rules that have been established.
10. Do not allow any individual to dominate the activities or responsibilities of the group. All members of the group should participate, within the limits of their abilities, and assume responsibilities for the success of the project.
11. Evaluate the completed group project with the students.
1. Discuss the problems and decisions participants had to face and the strategies chosen by each participant. Note recommendations and revisions that should be implemented with the next group project.
12. Do not direct a class into a group project unless you are willing to work harder than you would in large group instruction. The process of organizing and supervising group projects from behind the scenes of the classroom is almost always more taxing than the process of direct teaching in the foreground of the classroom.
COOPERATIVE LEARNING