TÈCNIQUES DOCUMENTALS

1.4.1 East African Study Locales

Developing world study locales were selected based on how well established the digital preservation programmes were; most programmes had been established for over 10 years. After considerable research, the author focused on East African study locales, because of their well established e-Government and Information Communication Technology programmes, which influenced the amount of digital information generated in these governments. These digital records will eventually need to be preserved by the national archives in these study locales and the transfer of these records is imminent.

The specific locales chosen are Kenya and Tanzania.

1.4.1.1 East African Community

The East African Community (EAC) is an intergovernmental organisation and economic development cooperative comprised of five member countries (Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda), headquartered in Arusha, Tanzania.⁸ The treaty establishing the East African Community was signed on 30 November 1999 by the governments of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania and entered into force on 7 July 2000. The Republics of Burundi and Rwanda joined the community on 18 June 2007, becoming full voting members on 1 July 2007. The EAC covers 1.82 million square kilometres and represents a population of 130 million people.

8 All information in this paragraph comes from: East African Community, ‘Welcome to the EAC’, East African Community, n.d., accessed 28 September 2012,

http://www.eac.int/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1:welcome-to-eac&catid=34:body-text-area&Itemid=53.

Image 1.1: Map of the East African Community⁹ The EAC’s mission is to: ‘[W]iden, deepen Economic, Political, Social and Cultural integration in order to improve the quality of life of the people of East Africa through increased competitiveness, value added production, trade and investment.’¹⁰ In line with this mission statement, the EAC established a Customs Union (2005) and a Common Market (2010) to promote better regional economic integration for the mutual benefit of member countries.¹¹ Furthermore, it issues a visioning document every four years with input from member countries. This document outlines strategic economic, developmental, social and cultural goals. In December 2011, the EAC issued its most recent strategic visioning document: 4th EAC Development Strategy (2011/12-2015/16):

Deepening and Accelerating Integration.¹² A major emphasis with this and other visioning documents is the role of technology to drive economic development.

Two EAC countries with strong government-wide ICT programmes are Kenya and Tanzania, which are producing significant amounts of digital information. In the near

9 Image comes from the University of Guelph (Ontario, Canada) East African Initiative page. The image was adapted from a creative commons images made available by Eric Gaba. See:

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Africa_map_blank.svg

10 East African Community. ‘Welcome to the EAC’

11 East African Community. ‘Welcome to the EAC’

12 East African Community. ‘4th EAC Development Strategy (2011/12-2015/16): Deepening and Accelerating Integration’. East African Community, December 2011. See page 27 of the plan regarding the role of technology to drive economic development.

future, the national archives and records programmes of these two countries will have to acquire the digital records generated by these technologies. Both institutions are representative of the digital records preservation realities faced by archives in the region. Furthermore, given the placement of these institutions in their respective governments, the Kenyan and Tanzanian examples serve as good counterpoints to each other, as one institution reports to the Ministry of Sports, Culture and the Arts (Kenya), whereas the other is a tutelary of the Office of the President (Tanzania).

1.4.1.2 Kenya

Kenya, a former British colony, gained its independence on 12 December 1963, one of the last countries in Eastern Africa to do so.¹³ The President, at the time of writing in 2015, is Uhuru Kenyatta, of the National Alliance, who was elected in April 2013.¹⁴ The capital of the country is Nairobi and its official languages are English and Swahili.¹⁵ The country covers a total of 580,367 square kilometres and is bordered by Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the west, South Sudan to the northwest, Ethiopia to the north and Somalia to the northeast, with the Indian Ocean to the east.¹⁶

Kenya has a population of 41.61 million, with at least 42 distinct ethnic groups.¹⁷ According to the 2009 Kenyan census, the main ethnic groupings are Kikuyu (17%), Luhya (14%), Kalenjin (13%), Luo (10%), Kamba (10%), Kisii (6%), Mijikenda (5%), Meru

13 Charles Hornsby, Kenya: A History Since Independence (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2012)., 19

14 Republic of Kenya, ‘The Presidency, Republic of Kenya | President Uhuru Kenyatta’, accessed 22 November 2014, http://www.president.go.ke/president-uhuru-kenyatta/.

15 Central Intelligence Agency, ‘CIA - The World Factbook’, accessed 28 September 2012, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ke.html.

16 Central Intelligence Agency. ‘CIA - The World Factbook’.

17 World Bank. ‘Kenya | Data’, n.d., accessed 12 September 2014, http://data.worldbank.org/country/kenya. Statistics were from 2011.

(4%), Turkana (2.5%), Maasai (2.1%), other indigenous groups (9%) and non-African groups (1%).¹⁸

Like many countries in the region, the Government of Kenya has published a strategic vision document aligning its country’s development with the overall regional objectives set out by the EAC. The Vision 2030 document¹⁹ details developmental, economic, educational, social and cultural goals that drive policy development and government initiatives, including ICT systems design and implementation. Based on Vision 2030, the Kenyan government’s e-Government directorate – which is tasked with overseeing the implementation of ICT systems across the Kenyan public service – is planning to develop ICT systems specifically related to land administration, immigration and vital statistics.²⁰

Kenya is a regional hub for commerce especially for Information Technology and has been dubbed by some as the ‘Silicon Savanna.’²¹ The country’s industries include: small-scale consumer goods (plastic, furniture, batteries, textiles, clothing, soap, cigarettes and flour); agricultural products and horticulture; oil refining; aluminium steel, lead and cement production; commercial ship repair; and tourism.²² Although these industries have all contributed to Kenya’s economic growth, the country also receives foreign aid from organisations such as the World Bank, United Nations and other international agencies.²³

18 Central Intelligence Agency. ‘CIA - The World Factbook’.

19 Republic of Kenya, ‘Vision 2030 | Vision’, accessed 28 September 2012, http://www.vision2030.go.ke/index.php/vision.

20 International Records Management Trust (IRMT), ‘Managing Records as Reliable Evidence for ICT/ e-Government and Freedom of Information in East Africa- Kenya Country Report’ (International Records Management Trust, September 2011)., 4

21 Alex Perry, ‘The Silicon Savanna’, Time, 11 July 2011.

22 Central Intelligence Agency, ‘CIA - The World Factbook’.

23 Hornsby, Kenya: A History Since Independence., 6

1.4.1.2.1 Kenya National Archives and Documentation Service (KNADS)

The Kenya National Archives and Documentation Service (KNADS) is a department of the Ministry of Sports, Culture and the Arts. It has a staff of approximately 30 individuals with varying qualifications: five have Masters Degrees, three have Post-Graduate Diplomas and 16 have a BA/BSc.²⁴ KNADS’ enabling legislation, the Public Archives and Documentation Service Act (1966)²⁵, was revised in 1991.²⁶ Revisions included renaming The Public Archives of Kenya to Kenya National Archives and Documentation Service (KNADS) as well as re-designating the Director of the Public Archives as the Chief Archivist.²⁷

Section 4 (1), in both the 1966 and 1991 Acts, gives the Director of the National Archives the ability to: ‘(a) Examine any public records, and advise on the care and preservation, custody and control thereof; (b) require the transfer to his custody of any public records which he considers should be housed in the national archives.’²⁸ This section effectively tasks the institution with the preservation of records of enduring value to the Government. Because the Public Archives and Documentation Service Act is not format specific, KNADS expects that it will be responsible for the management and preservation of digital public records.²⁹ The Act, however, does not mandate KNADS with any responsibility for managing digital records from the point of creation to transfer, an important distinction when it comes to ensuring their preservation.

24 Hornsby, Kenya: A History Since Independence., 7.

25 Republic of Kenya, The Public Archives and Documentation Service Act - KNADS, 1966, accessed 29 November 2013, http://www.archives.go.ke/publications/acts-of-parliament/481-public-archives-act.html.

26 Lilian Gisesa, ‘Libraries and Democracy: The Role of the Kenya National Archives and Documentation Service’

(presented at the Role of Libraries in Promoting Democracy: Ensuring Free Access for All, Nairobi, Kenya, 23 July 2008), accessed 28 September 2012, http://www.goethe.de/ins/za/pro/lag/kenya-gisesa.pdf., 2.

27 Gisesa, ‘Libraries and Democracy’., 2.

28 Republic of Kenya. The Public Archives and Documentation Service Act, 1966.

29 IRMT, ‘Managing Records as Reliable Evidence- Kenya’., 8.

1.4.1.3 Tanzania

Tanzania, formerly a German and British colony called Tanganyika, declared

independence on 9 December 1961.³⁰ After the Zanzibar Revolution in 1963, which overthrew the Arab Sultan of Zanzibar,³¹ Tanganyika merged with Zanzibar, becoming the United Republic of Tanzania in 1964.³²

The Republic of Tanzania covers 947,300 square kilometres³³ and is bordered by Mozambique, Malawi and Zambia to the south, the Democratic Republic of Congo to the west, Burundi and Rwanda to the northwest and Uganda and Kenya to the north, with the Indian Ocean as its eastern coastline. Dar es Salaam is the capital of Tanzania and also its main commercial centre. Although Swahili is the official language, English is the working language for commerce, administration and higher education; in Zanzibar, Kiunguja (Swahili), English and Arabic are spoken. The population of Tanzania is estimated at 46.91 million. The mainland is 99% African, comprising 95% Bantu

distributed among 130 tribes, while the remainder of the population is Asian, European and Arab. Zanzibar is made up of Arab, African, and mixed Afro-Arab peoples, but no statistical breakdown is available.

Tanzania has developed a visioning document called Achieving Economic Growth, Prosperity and Reduction of Poverty by 2025,³⁴ which includes, among its strategic areas for continued prosperity, the development of ICTs as a key economic driver to address

30 Central Intelligence Agency, ‘CIA - The World Factbook’, Tanzania, accessed 28 September 2012.

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tz.html.

31 Isaria Kimambo and A.J. Temu, eds., A History Tanzania (Nairobi, Kenya: East African Publishing House, 1969)., 214-238.

32 Kimambo and Temu, eds., A History of Tanzania ., 249.

33 Information in this paragraph comes from Central Intelligence Agency, ‘CIA - The World Factbook’. United Republic of Tanzania, ‘The Tanzania National Website’, accessed 29 September 2012, http://www.tanzania.go.tz/profile1f.html.

34 United Republic of Tanzania, ‘The Tanzanian Development Vision 2025’ (Government of Tanzania- Planning Commission, n/d), accessed 28 September 2012, http://www.tanzania.go.tz/vision.htm.

poverty.³⁵ Like Kenya’s Vision 2030, Tanzania’s action plan aligns to overarching regional goals as defined by the EAC in its own strategic plan. To actualise its ICT ambitions the Government of Tanzania introduced the National Information and Communications Technologies policy in March 2003,³⁶ providing a general framework to guide the provision of government information, along with a more specific regulatory framework to support IT implementation.³⁷ In addition, in August 2009, the Government developed and disseminated a five-year strategic plan for the development of e-Government systems, coinciding with the development and implementation of government-wide ICT systems such as the Integrated Human Resource and Payroll Management System (IHRPMS), Integrated Financial Management System (IFMIS) and Geographical Information System (GIS).³⁸

Tanzania’s primary industries include agricultural processing, particularly for products such as sugar, beets, tobacco and sisal; mining; salt, soda ash and cement production; oil refining; clothing manufacture; and the production of wood and

fertilizer.³⁹ Tanzania, like many developing nations, relies on foreign aid to supplement its economy; in 2008 the country received the largest Millennium Challenge⁴⁰ compact grant (a US-based foreign aid grant), worth 698 million dollars USD.⁴¹

35 Dr. Zaipuna Yonah, ‘ICT Tools for Poverty Reduction’, 18 March 2005, accessed 29 September 2012, http://www.tzonline.org/pdf/ictsastoolsforpovertyreduction1.pdf.

36 United Republic of Tanzania, Ministry of Communications and Transport, ‘National Information and Communications Technology Policy’ (United Republic of Tanzania, March 2003), accessed 29 September 2012,

http://www.tanzania.go.tz/pdf/ictpolicy.pdf.

37 International Records Management Trust (IRMT), ‘Managing Records as Reliable Evidence for ICT/ e-Government and Freedom of Information in East Africa- Tanzania Country Report’ (International Records Management Trust, September 2011), accessed 12 September 2012, http://irmt.org/portfolio/managing-records-reliable-evidence-ict-e-government-freedom-information-east-africa-2010-%E2%80%93-2011., 4

38 IRMT, ‘Managing Records as Reliable Evidence – Tanzania’., 4

39 Central Intelligence Agency, ‘CIA - The World Factbook’.

40 The Millennium Challenge Corporation was created by the US Congress in 2004 to distribute US foreign aid, it seeks to promote good governance, economic freedom and investment in citizens by strengthening investment, commerce and government structures. Accessed 12 September 2014 See: http://www.mcc.gov/pages/about

41 The Millennium Challenge Corporation, accessed 12 September 2014 http://www.mcc.gov/pages/about

1.4.1.3.1 Records and Archives Management Department (RAMD)

The Records and Archives Management Department of the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania was established through the Records and Archives Management Act in 1965. In 2002, this enabling legislation was broadened as part of a DFID-funded records management improvement project (1997–2002) headed up by the International Records Management Trust (IRMT). As a result of these legislative changes, the

department was moved from the Ministry of Sports, Culture and Information to the Public Service Management Division of the Office of the President. RAMD has 70 staff members; 40 are trained archives and records management professionals.⁴²

The Records and Archives Management Act gives RAMD a clear remit over the care of digital records, since records are defined in the Act as ‘[R]ecorded information regardless of form or medium created, received and maintained by any institution or individual in pursuance of its legal obligations or in the transaction of its business and providing evidence of the performance of those obligations or that business.’⁴³ Unlike KNADS, RAMD has oversight over the management of active and semi-active records in government, as per Sections 6(1), 11 and 12 of the Act. Section 9 of the Act stipulates the responsibilities of heads of public office in the maintenance of records. It also

requires government ministries, department and agencies (MDA) to transfer semi-active records to the National Archives for maintenance and disposition.

In its 2003 ICT strategy, the Tanzanian Government recognised the importance of records management to the accessibility of key digital records by clearly tying the

success of the strategy to the existence of a policy that supports the proper creation,

42 All the information in this paragraphs comes from: IRMT, ‘Managing Records as Reliable Evidence - Tanzania’., 9-10

43 All information in this paragraph comes from: United Republic of Tanzania, Records and Archives Management Act, 2002. accessed 29 September 2012, http://www.tzonline.org/pdf/therecordsandarchivesmnagementact.pdf.

management and preservation of records. ⁴⁴ As a result of the 2009 e-Government strategy, two circulars were issued to underscore the importance of proper information management in the civil service. Circular 5 addresses the duty of care that public

servants should exercise when uploading confidential information to portable electronic storage media like flash drives, CDs, DVDs and data tapes. Circular 6 provides guidance to ICT personnel and users of ICT systems regarding the retention and disposition of digital information in those systems. The circular also makes explicit reference to the role of RAMD in preserving digital records ‘for future data recovery’.⁴⁵