Textismos que rompen con la correspondencia tradicional entre grafema-

The upgrading of airfields in New Zealand to meet the minimum standard required and the time scale for this development was a continuing problem for the state-owned airline NAC. The rapid growth in air travel, the need for airports to accommodate more sophisticated aircraft and the need for funding to pay led to the setting up of a partnership at a local and national level to finance the development of airports (Doganis, 1992; Graham, 2003). The Ministry of Transport (1972) suggests that a partnership scheme was initiated in New Zealand as a consequence of the cost involved in the major reconstruction of Rongotai Airport at Wellington. The Director of Administration in the Civil Aviation Administration 1951-1952 had proposed ―that airport development should be funded equally by government and the local body concerned‖ and that the use of airport facilities should be paid for ―on a reasonable basis‖ by the users (McGreal, 2003, p. 154).

The scheme became known as the joint venture airport scheme and was a ―series of joint venture arrangements‖ between the local authorities and government ―to develop New Zealand‘s airport infrastructure‖ (King, 2006, p. 1). The government and one or more local authorities would agree to form a partnership to manage the joint venture airport. The government would share the cost of any capital expenditure and future improvements and any deficits or surpluses were shared equally between the parties. Despite the government retaining a 50% shareholding in the venture it had no role in the day to day running of the airports; this was left to the local authority partners. The aerodromes were handed over to the local authorities in their pre-war condition and any assets acquired during the war ―were to be held in trust‖ by that

airport (McGreal, 2003, p. 155). The joint venture airport policy was implemented over some 21 years and by 1974 there was a peak of 24 airports involved in this scheme (Lyon and Francis, 2006).

The Ministry of Transport (1972) suggest that ―[t]he purpose of the joint-venture management was two-fold – to slow demand and obtain a local contribution towards costs; and to expand local interest and pride in the aerodrome as a local asset‖ (p. 3). Some authorities were reluctant to take on this responsibility while others saw it as an opportunity to develop their regional airport. At the time the government ―decided that local bodies should contribute to the cost of providing aerodromes in their localities on the basis of the community‘s ability to pay ... this policy was difficult to implement because communities ... tended to claim inability to pay‖ (p. 2). The Wellington City Council agreed to pay one third of the cost of providing the new Wellington Airport while the Christchurch City Council agreed that the cost of developing Christchurch Airport would be shared on an equal basis. Equal sharing was subsequently to become the basis of the national joint venture policy and the only other significant departure from this prior to 1972 was the development of the new airport at Auckland during the early 1960s. In this case the government had agreed to contribute more than 50% of the costs. The broad principles contained in these agreements were as follows:

 The Crown and the local body both pool all assets.

 All future expenditure is shared equally between the two parties.

 The local bodies have autonomy in management and maintenance matters but annual estimates are to be provided to the Ministry of Transport.

 All future capital expenditure is to have the prior approval of both parties.  The Crown will continue to have responsibility for aircraft operational matters.

 The Crown will continue to be responsible for the provision, operation and maintenance of airway facilities. (Airways facilities are defined as all technical en route approach and aerodrome facilities designed for the safety of flight, and include aeronautical communications, meteorological services, navigation aids, air traffic control, lighting systems, and search and rescue services).

 The Crown will continue to prescribe airport dues on a national basis.

 The local body is to keep separate airport accounts on a commercial accounting basis, as determined by the Ministry of Transport. All annual surpluses or deficits are to be shared equally between the parties (Ministry of Transport, 1972, p. 4).

The scheme had some problems as the Minister of Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services, Richard Prebble pointed out when announcing new airport policy in 1985 (Minister of Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services, 1985). A requirement that existed for both parties to agree on all capital expenditure caused difficulties because local authorities and central government sometimes had different objectives. The

by an airline using a particular airport and were paid by airlines to the respective airports in arrears (Manager G Airport 6, personal communication, March 27, 2009). The joint venture scheme was to remain the principal way by which airports were owned, developed and operated from 1953 until the 1986 amendments to the Airport Authorities Act 1966 that resulted in the commercialisation of the major airports between 1988 and 1990 (Lyon and Francis, 2006).

In October 1953 the UK withdrew from TEAL leaving it in the joint ownership of the governments of Australia and New Zealand (Aimer, 2009f; Sheehan, 2003). When BCPA liquidated in the same month TEAL received three land-based Douglas DC6 aircraft as payment for its investment (Sheehan, 2003). The transfer from flying boats to land-based planes meant TEAL had to move its Auckland operations to Whenuapai Air Force Base. In July 1955 a civil engineer named J. Wright ―warned that the advances in aircraft technology were producing bigger, heavier, more powerful aircraft, effectively out-dating conventional airport design‖ (Thompson and Clements, 2003, p. 67). The same year the government finally announced that Mangere would be the site of the major domestic and international airport for Auckland but that it would not be needed for another 10 years. PAA, a licensed international airline, disagreed with the government‘s decision and suggested that airport development within New Zealand was already lagging behind the need and that the international airport should proceed as quickly as possible (Rendel, 1975). It had been the original intention of the government to share the cost of the construction of the new Auckland Airport at Mangere on an equal basis with its local authority joint venture partners in 1959 but this plan was subsequently abandoned. The government then agreed to fund the bulk of the development of this particular airport in the expectation that airport charges would be levied against the airport users to recoup the development costs over the first six years of its operation (Thompson and Clements, 2003).

During the late 1950s the domestic airline NAC decided to replace its reliable unpressurised DC3 Dakotas which were able to land on grass and tarmac with pressurised turboprop airliners. Not all the airports could accommodate these aircraft and some services had to wait until the runways had been improved (Wright, 2002). The first Vickers Viscount 807 was delivered on 10 January 1958 and could only operate on the trunk route from two airports, Whenuapai at Auckland and Harewood at Christchurch. They were finally able to land in Wellington in 1959 and Dunedin in 1962 (Sheehan, 2003). The larger and heavier Fokker F27 Friendships needed for provincial services were delivered from December 1960 but could not operate as intended either until the mid-1960s (Ewing and Macpherson, 1985; Rendel, 1975; Wright, 2002) when runways had been built to ―more-or-less standard specification: usually a single black bitumen strip, about 1400 metres long by 45 metres wide, with unobstructed approaches to each end of the runway‖ (Ewing and Macpherson, 1986, p. 212).

The Civil Aviation Administration of New Zealand published a document containing the principles and procedures of joint-venture airports in 1961. At this time of this report there were 12 New Zealand airports within the scheme. The Air Department (1961) comments in this document, on the increasing acceptance of

air travel during the immediate post-war years creating a need for substantial improvement to airports to accommodate modern aircraft, an acceptance of the need for subsidising improvements relating to air transport and a clear intention of eventually implementing a user pays approach to developing air transport infrastructure. ―The "user who pays" and the community are entitled to the assurance that effective promotion and commercial development, associated with efficient maintenance and operation, will show some prospects of airports eventually becoming self-supporting if not self-liquidating‖ (p. 3). By the mid-1960s the government was advocating a "user pays" policy and examining ways by which the cost of providing airports and airways could be passed on to those who benefitted from them. The objective of this policy was to recover full costs where it was practical to do so (Ministry of Transport, 1972; McGreal, 2003). This required a change in financial thinking within the Ministry of Transport to account for such costs and revenues.

Various local authorities, as joint venture partners with the government, were now faced with the significant cost of building new runways and terminal facilities. As the joint venture airports could not borrow the money the different partners were obliged to supply or borrow the necessary funds. Rendel (1975) suggests that this financial constraint was the principal reason the developments were not completed on time and subsequently the services and delivery of some new aircraft wwere held up. Eighteen months after the arrival of the first the Fokker F27 Friendship in 1960 the aircraft were finally able to use the first of the new or reconstructed aerodromes. The first, Momona at Dunedin, was completed in July 1962 and others followed; Whakatane in December 1962, Rotokawa in Rotorua and Napier in October 1963, Onerahi Airport at Whangarei in June 1964, Wharekawa in Taupo in June 1965, Mangere in Auckland in January 1966 and Tauranga in July 1967 (Ewing and Macpherson, 1986; McGreal, 2003).

Domestic services were transferred back from Paraparaumu Airport, some 60 kilometres north of Wellington City, to the completely reconstructed and more centrally located Rongotai Airport in October 1959. Despite the rebuilding, geographical constraints still placed limits on the size of aircraft that could operate out of Wellington Airport. Later this would require Air New Zealand to retain single models of older aircraft to service this airport when it upgraded its fleet from the Electra to the DC8 and again from the DC8 to the DC10 to meet the political requirement to have an international airport at Wellington (Francis and Lyon, 2008). Christchurch continued its own development path ensuring that it remained the second most important airport in New Zealand. In 1962 its runway was extended to 2,442 metres and 12 years later it again extended the length of its principal runway to 3,287 metres.

In 1960 the last TEAL owned and operated Solent flying boat ceased operations (Sheehan, 2003) and construction finally started on the new international airport at Mangere near Auckland (Thompson and Clements, 2003; Wright, 2002). A number of key New Zealand politicians and civil servants at this time were finding it increasingly unacceptable that Australia was allegedly dictating aviation policy to New Zealand (McGreal, 2003). New Zealand‘s aspirations for TEAL to expand internationally were not supported by its

Australia agreed that New Zealand would become the sole owner of TEAL and 1 April 1961 full ownership of the airline was acquired by New Zealand. The company was subsequently renamed Air New Zealand. It developed steadily during the 1960s, was financially successful and expanded its routes (Ewing and Macpherson, 1986). On 4 April 1963 the first international scheduled pure jet service commenced with the arrival of a British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) Comet jet at Whenuapai Airport. The air-force base at Whenuapai continued to operate as the international airport for Auckland until Air New Zealand made the first flight from the new domestic and international Auckland Airport at Mangere to Sydney in November 1965. This airport was officially opened in late January 1966 (Rendel, 1975; Thompson and Clements, 2003) completing the three international airport model recommended by the Tymms Report in 1948. This three international arrangement was to remain in place for 19 years until 1994 when Kiwi Airlines was established and flights to Australia from Hamilton established it as the fourth international airport (Lyon and Francis 2006).

On 17 November 1964 the Civil Aviation Act 1964 was passed into law. This was ―[a]n Act to constitute the Department of Civil Aviation and to consolidate and amend the law relating to civil aviation‖. Part 1: Department of Civil Aviation: Sections 3, 4, 5, 12, 13 and 25 of this Act are of particular interest to this investigation. Sections 3 and 4 provided for a Department of Civil Aviation to be established under the control of a Minister of Civil Aviation. Prior to this civil aviation had been part of the Minister of Defence‘s portfolio. Section 5 (1) (a) makes it clear that the principal function of the Act is ―[t]o promote and encourage the orderly and economic development of civil aviation‖. Section 12 (1) of the Civil Aviation Act 1964 explains that one of the ―functions‖ of the Minister of Civil Aviation is to:

[D]o all that is necessary or convenient to be done for ... the establishment, maintenance, and operation ... of any aerodrome under his complete or partial control... as if the operation of the aerodrome or of the services or facilities were a commercial undertaking.

This is the first reference in legislation that requires the minister to regard aerodromes as commercial entities. It predates the announcement of government policy to form airports into companies in conjunction with its local government partners by some 21 years. The Act goes on to clarify what authority the minister had regarding the management of airports and the commercial operations within them. Firstly section 12 (4)(a) allows the Minister of Civil Aviation to enter into ―joint venture‖ arrangements and secondly to ―transfer... the management of any aerodrome under the control of the Minister ... to any other ... parties‖ in subsection (4)(d). Thirdly subsection (4)(g) makes provision for commercial activities to be carried out at aerodromes ―for the operation of the aerodrome or for theconvenience of persons usingthe aerodrome‖.Section 13 goes on to make provision for the setting of charges and dues and indentifies who should meet these charges. It makes provision for the charges to be levied against those owning or operating aircraft and other parties. Section 25 of this Act made provision for the sale of liquor at international airports provided that any such liquor purchased was not consumed in New Zealand or provided to any other person who remained in New

Zealand. From 1964 there was the statutory basis for commercial matters to be taken into account with regard to the operation of the airport system in New Zealand. The facility now existed for the private sector to become involved and both the private sector and public owners to treat the airport as a ―commercial undertaking‖. At this time the owners of all the major airports within New Zealand were either the government or the government in partnership with one or more local authorities.

The Minister of Defence had been responsible for the administration of civil aviation within New Zealand since the establishment of the Air Department Act 1937 but this changed when the Civil Aviation Act 1964 reaffirmed the need for a Department of Civil Aviation, provided for the ―appointment of a Secretary for Civil Aviation as the administrative head of the Department‖ and created the first Minister of Civil Aviation portfolio (CAA, 2003, p. 10). Its primary function was ―to promote and encourage the economic and orderly development of civil aviation in New Zealand‖ (Rendel, 1975, p. 94). However within four years airport management was to become a division of the Department of Transport (Swarbrick, 2009).