VÍNCULO PACIENTE ACOMPAÑANTE TERAPÉUTICO 72

The emergence of case study and action research as the two methods of the study allows for efficiency in the usage of data collection techniques They fundamentally, do not differ too much because participant observation was part of the case study. However, before the approach to data collection and reporting is discussed, it is important to clarify the difference between qualitative and quantitative data. It is argued that quantitative data takes the form of numbers or measurements and qualitative data the form of words (Punch, 2000). To expand, qualitative data are argued to incorporate the use of words to describe situations, individuals or circumstances surrounding a phenomenon, whilst quantitative data uses numbers in the form of counts or measurements to give precision to observations (Remenyi and Williams, 1996). However, the idea that numbers are only used for measurement purposes carries distinctly positivistic overtones, and presents numbers and measures as objective with no meaning. Furthermore, qualitative studies may also involve other data such as observations of actions in order to facilitate understandings of socially constructed situations. Qualitative data are therefore perhaps more usefully thought of as being concerned with meaning and quantitative data with that of

measurement. This is why this study includes only qualitative data, even though numbers, such as software costs, may be used in analysis and for theory building.

Table 4.3: Issues for Action Research in Field Study and Consultancy Modes Issues for Field Study Mode Issues for Consultancy Mode

Choosing the domain

It needs to be appropriate to the research.

Contact is likely to be initiated by researcher.

There may be difficulty in recruiting collaborators.

The domain needs to offer sufficient depth and complexity in order that insights can be obtained.

Researcher recognition of mutual benefit and shared interest between themselves and the domain if any.

The domain may choose you.

Are the clients needs going to be met, is this suitable for research.

Planning and implementing the study

Focus upon and document the approach towards the study rather than predicting and testing outcomes

Choose methods appropriate to the epistemological basis of the research.

Client demands may make it difficult to follow the direction the researcher wishes. Develop potential strategies for action prior to the event to limit damage.

Engaging

collaborators Make them aware of the researcher’s intentions at the outset. That is to say the researcher’s prime interest is in learning about a particular aspect of research from which they, the collaborators, may benefit. The value of the research is dependent upon collaboration – researchers need to consider changes in personnel.

They may be overly interested and you have to fit with how they want the work to progress which may detract from your work.

The rigour of action research:

Record data systematically over time. Knowing what to record and what not to is a problem for the action researcher.

Research based upon consultancy activities may run into difficulties for example if there is no evidence for the assertions made about the work other than the consultants remembrance of it; the cycles of learning cannot be identified because at the time the action research process was not clearly conceived. False

expectations Researchers need to manage expectations. The client may not be happy with the identification of the problem by the researcher as it emerges from the process of learning (need to let the client know this). Identifying

useful lessons and bringing the study to a close

It is difficult to identify lessons as actions arise.

Documenting actions facilitates the development of lessons.

The researcher recognises the point at which closure is reached.

Clients may decide this. What about your research?

It is suggested that in an interpretive field study, primary or secondary sources of data may be used. Primary data may be collected by methods such as participant observation, interviews, tape recordings of meetings, unpublished written materials created independently of the researcher (such as memos, correspondence, minutes of meetings and reports). Secondary source material includes previously published documents such as those by scholars or practitioners (Myers, 1997). In this study, a wide range of data collection methods were employed and sources referred to including:

- interviews which were mostly unstructured with a few being semi-structured, - participant and non-participant observation,

- opportunistic meetings/conversations, - minutes of meetings,

- reports/requirements documentation such as that prepared in-house, by consultants and by packaged software vendors,

- email correspondence,

- Company newsletters.

The reader may find it surprising that tape recording was not used. This was not undertaken for two reasons. It was felt that tape recording would interfere too much with the job at hand. At times, I was acting in a consultancy role as well as that of researcher. Furthermore, tape recording might have hindered data collection due to the subjects’ perceptions of, and comfort with, tape recording. Based on over two years of working with those in the organisation, this was the right strategy – the Managing Director in particular would never have agreed! Tape recording is no

guarantee of getting more accurate data anyway. Even when peoples’ activities are tape-recorded and transcribed, the reliability of the interpretation of transcripts may be gravely weakened by a failure to record apparently trivial pauses and overlaps (Silverman, 2000). Thus, as I had several years of interviewing experience, and good access to the company, it was felt that better insights would be obtained by recording data by hand where appropriate, or salient points directly after ‘meetings’ where even note taking would have been problematic. This approach also allowed for time to be spent observing what people did as well as finding out about what they said they did. As Silverman states – decontextualized accounts of meanings are very limited guides to the complexities of human action (Silverman, 1998)12. Watching, as a form of ‘recording’, was invaluable in this study.

It is also suggested that reporting on the collection of field data should include details of the research sites chosen, the reasons for this choice, the number of people who were interviewed, and what hierarchical or professional positions they occupied (Walsham, 1995b). To that end the beginning of this section details how and why the site was chosen – quite by accident is the flippant response, but obviously it would not of been chosen had T.Co. not decided to implement packaged software and had there not been a good chance of access in order to the undertake study13. The people who were interviewed and their positions are shown in Table 4.4.

From June to November 2000 I visited the company 6 times. From November 2000, when the TCS programme began, I visited most weeks, spending a half to one day

12 _{Silverman actually uses the term human-computer interaction, but I think that the assertion retains the flavour post}

modification. Also, I acknowledge that interviews do offer the chance to observe what people do as well as what they say they do – non-verbal messages for example.

13 _{I hasten to add, the decision of T.Co. to implement packaged software way in no way influenced by my desire to study them}

on site. Documentary evidence and interviews were also used to obtain insights into the position at T.Co. before the study began. These data stretch back to initial thinking regarding the client-tracking project in August 1999.

The data are reported as follows. The story begins by familiarising the reader with the company. Then, a combination of thick and thin description are used to present three information systems projects at T.Co, which involve the selection of packaged software. Thin description states ‘facts’ and thick description gives the context of an action, aims to brief the reader about the intentions and meanings that organised the action, traces the evolution and development of the action, and presents the action as a text that can then be interpreted (Denzin, 2001)14. For example, data about company turnover, organisational structure and a timeline of events are provided, but these are put into context with information about the competitive environment, and peoples’ reported feelings about the company and the various projects. It is further suggested that the analysis strategy needs to be outlined (Walsham, 1995b). This is undertaken in section 4.4.4.