3. Marc teòric
3.1. El fenomen social dels E-Sports
3.1.5. L’impacte socioeconòmic dels E-Sports
3.1.5.4. Videojocs que lideren el fenomen dels E-Sports
In a nutshell, it is possible to argue that ‘culture’ offers both an enabling and constraining environment for community‐based experiential learning practices and praxis, and it is perhaps important to uncover opportunities that favour enabling conditions and employ them as opportunities for social learning and a platform upon which wider social learning (especially in natural resource management contexts) may be attained. Sayer (2000) argues that for ‘agency’ to emerge, or for people to excise their innate powers to act, enabling conditions must be put in place. Identification of the enabling conditions that culture may offer is therefore an important element of praxis.
2.11 Abstraction of knowledge forms and their impact on Praxis and Learning
Based on its core interest, this study seeks to uncover and examine two main forms of knowledge namely ‘Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and ‘Scientific knowledge’ (see sections 1.7.3 and 1.7.6 respectively). Different authors have attempted to describe these forms of knowledge by attaching terms that may sound easier to readers and knowledge users at different levels in different parts of the world. Hoppers (2002) for example, calls TEK ‘endogenous’ (internal) and ‘scientific /Western knowledge’ ‘exogenous’ (external).
This kind of description simply communicates the message to users of knowledge that knowledge may be created in a specified setting, but may also be adapted to different contexts depending on emerging or existing needs.
Though this study employs the term ‘Scientific knowledge’ to represent Modern, Western, and Global forms of knowledge (see section 1.7.6), which are different from indigenous forms (see section 1.7.3), it is also imperative to note that TEK is believed to have qualities that qualify it to be called a form of ‘science’ by itself (Sillitoe 2007; Berkes, 2012).
However, the focus here, is not to address the ‘scientificity’ of TEK, but rather to clarify the use of the term ‘scientific knowledge’ or scientific abstractions, in this particular research context.
One notable key element which distinguishes ‘scientific’ knowledge from TEK is the language of description that each of them use. As discussed earlier, language is a component of culture which plays a vital role in communication; and can be regarded as a medium for the occurrence of social learning (Wals, 2010). For this reason, Hoppers (2002) argues that there is a strong relationship between language, knowledge, and power:
Knowledge, language, and power have an interdetermining relationship. The main door into a knowledge system is through its language. The words and their meanings are the vehicle for the conceptual ordering of categories and relationships that constitute the world‐view of the speakers of that language and you control the way in which people see and relate to the world around them, including themselves and each other. (p. 227).
The metaphor “main door” which is assigned to language by Hoppers (ibid.), suggests that successful knowledge transfer can mainly or largely be attained if the language of description used is able to make its users view the social world more clearly, to the level that they are able to understand various processes and make possible decisions as they interact with the world. The said metaphor also leaves the possibility for ‘the door’ to be closed or opened. This simply implies that language may be ‘described’ either in a manner that allows common people to understand (Reed et al., 2006), or in a form that may only give access to those that share the discourse as in educated communities of scientists.
Traditional ecological knowledge, for example, has proved to contain the language of description that accommodates qualitative abstractions that are common and familiar to indigenous communities (Berkes, 2008); while scientific institutions favour the language of description that prioritizes scientific or quantitative abstractions (Hoppers, 2002). From these examples, a premise may be drawn that indigenous communities may not freely use
‘scientific language’ to the level that will make them view the world in the manner that they would have viewed it in their familiar language of description. If this is the case, then to them language becomes a closed door to knowledge rather than an access tool. Efforts should thus be made to ensure that plans such as community‐based monitoring of natural resources like mangrove forests, prioritize contextual relevance (see 2.6 and 2.7) and the language of description that leads to an understanding of the social world.
As mentioned in sections 1.3.2 and 2.7, Reed et al. (2010) argue that understanding is a criterion for the occurrence of social learning or acquiring knowledge. Failure to understand the language of description may lead to a misunderstanding of what is going on and may thus limit wider social learning (Ibid.). This was found to be the case in the social learning study of Masara (2011) where he found that the language of learning was not the language of use, leading to misunderstanding and poor communications of key concepts and ideas associated with the commercialisation of beekeeping practices in rural communities in South Africa and Zimbabwe.
Different studies indicate that both TEK and scientific knowledge can be applied or used together, or support each other in the process of social learning. Sillitoe (2007) calls this process ‘hybridization of knowledge’, and Berkes (2008) calls it ‘knowledge integration’. The call for creating an environment that will allow each of those knowledge forms to support each other is paramount, since both have potentials to complement each other and none of them is ‘infallible’ (Berkes, 2012). Arguing in support of this, Hoppers states:
We must find ways to reformulate traditional knowledge in terms of the imported knowledge and vice versa, we must integrate the traditional into the modern in a way that allows the development of new forms of rationality, enlarged and more comprehensive than the forms prevailing today. (p. 37).
How this is to be done in ecological monitoring is the focus of this study as indicated in section 1.3.3. Berkes argues further that traditional ecological knowledge “is complementary to Western scientific knowledge and not a replacement of it” (2012, p. 144).
He observes that the two knowledge forms have many similarities in terms of the information‐base used, though fundamentally, they differ in that Western Science or
‘scientific knowledge’ gives priority to quantitative measures, and employs population models for management decisions, as opposed to TEK which favours qualitative approaches or measures. In other words, both forms of knowledge need to complement each other and none of them can successfully operate fully on its own (ibid.).
Prior to inviting the possibility for integrating the two forms of knowledge, it is important to examine the kind of contribution that each of the two may offer to praxis or experiential learning processes. Wavey (1993), testifies that indigenous communities retain a record of ecological changes for generations more so than any other social institutions, and argues that their time‐tested in‐depth local knowledge can be used in monitoring ecological systems. They also have what Berkes (2012, p. 47) calls “constructed mental models” of the health status of the ecosystems, which according to Kofinas & McPherson, 2002) and Eamer (2006), can give rich information for monitoring environmental change.
Castello et al. (2009), Sullivan, Sullivan, Wood, & Iliff (2009), and Goffredo, Pensa, Neri, &
Orlandi (2010) all indicate that indigenous or traditional ecological knowledge has been used for environmental monitoring in many cases; including monitoring of salmon aquaculture waste (Heaslip, 2008).
Apart from environmental monitoring, there is evidence that traditional ecological knowledge can also be used in assessing the environment, or in evaluating environmental impacts (Ericksen & Woodley, 2005). Moller, Berkes, Lyver, & Kislalioglu (2004) list common traditional methods that are used by indigenous communities in the process of monitoring the health status of animals and plant species (see table 2.2).
Table 2.2 Traditional methods for monitoring plant and animal species and their health
Method Description
Catch per unit of effort Harvest success, or catch rate, usually per unit of time, or time and effort spent.
Body condition index Pre ‐ or post‐harvest observation of fat in body parts of many kinds of animals.
Breeding success Number of young per adult or per nest, or the
ratio of young to adults in a population.
Population density sensing Qualitative assessment using “feel, see, touch, smell, hear, and taste.
Noting unusual patterns Detecting change by noting extreme (strange
distributions, rare occurrences, breeding failure, unexpected behaviour, etc.)
Observation of species mixes Presence or absence of desirable or undesirable species or assemblages.
Communal hunts Collective information gathering by sweeping a
large area with participation of many harvesters.
Source: Adapted from Moller et al. (2004)
In some cases, traditional methods and indicators go beyond biophysical systems and assess human–environment relationships (ibid.).
Developed indicators are in most cases believed to be consistent with the notions that indigenous people have on the healthy relations with the environment and other living things (Parlee et al. 2005b). Berkes (2012) argues that TEK addresses three main clusters, namely unity and diversity of indigenous systems, ethics of sacred ecology, and the importance of community‐based and participatory resource management.
Berkes views indigenous knowledge as providing reliable opportunities necessary for development. Presenting his views on this, he argues that the use of traditional ecological knowledge may benefit involved communities since indigenous ways of dealing with the environment encourage “realistic evaluations of local needs, environmental constraints, and natural resource production systems” (Berkes 2012, p. 48). He also observes that TEK is used as a major tool among practitioners who believe that development must carry on board local concerns and should also be relevant to target communities.
Preston, Berkes, & George (1995) and Berkes (2012) note that the use of TEK has great potential not only in designing strategies for culturally sustainable development but also for protecting humans from natural disasters like tsunami and modern crises. This is possible since indigenous groups have a social memory of past events and predictive abilities for natural disasters and weather conditions (Berkes, 2012).
In situations where scientific information proves to be not available, some scientists tend to opt for traditional knowledge for help. A good example of this, is when Robertson & McGee (2003) used TEK and social memory to assess events that are associated with flood frequency in a wetland project in Australia. Schlacher, Lloyd, & Wiegand (2010) also used traditional knowledge of ‘noxious algal blooming’ to develop a management plan for tourist beaches. Cited cases affirm that the two forms of knowledge can complement each other.
Affirming the idea of integrating the two forms of knowledge, Berkes (2012) argues as follows:
Traditional knowledge and Western Science need not to be thought of as opposites.
Rather, it is useful to emphasize the potential complementarities of the two, and to look for points of agreement rather than disagreement. The use of traditional knowledge contributes to conceptual pluralism, and expands the range of approaches and information sources needed for problem solving’ (p. 174).
The same plea is given by Bhaskar et al. (2010, p. 196) that indigenous knowledge should
“not stand opposed to scientific knowledge” but rather work together. For this to happen, indigenous knowledge needs to be “fostered, re‐contextualized, and appropriated” (Bhaskar et al., 2010. p. 113). In contexts where such knowledge has been marginalised, it can also be re‐appropriated (O’Donoghue & Neluvhalani, 2002).
2.12 Parameters, attributes, and methods/ techniques used in the two