Volúmenes de Transporte 3. Centros de intercambio modal carretera - ferrocarril

Hydrographlc reconnaissance is the reconnaissance of operationally or strategi- cally significant bodies of water and marginal land areas. It is conducted to deter- mine water depths, beach gradients, the nature of the bottom, location of obstacles and barriers, speed of currents, thickness of ice, defensive preparations, and other military and nonmilitary characteristics of a target. SFODs perform hydrographic reconnaissance of point, diffuse, and linear targets that lie above and below the water line. Hydrographic reconnaissance missions conducted by SF are described below. For a detailed discussion of SF waterborne operations, see TC 31-25.

Beach Surveys

A beach survey is the collection of data describing the characteristics of a specific beach. Figure 3-3, page 3-4 is a typical beach profile. The survey is used to deter- mine if the beach is suitable for military operations. A beach survey may be con- ducted openly or clandestinely using the beach survey format at Appendix D. SFODs normally conduct beach surveys to validate preexisting data. Often, these surveys are in support of other SOF. SFODs may also prepare tactical beach re- ports (TACBEREPs) and surf reports (SURFREPs) using the message formats at Appendix D. When reconnoitering beaches, SFODs can perform basic beach re- connaissance as depicted in Figure 3-4 and as described below.

Beach Characteristics. A beach is a strip of sand, pebbles, or other material ex- tending inland from the line of extreme low water to the coastline. Its length is the distance along the beach at the water’s edge during high and low tides be- tween the ends of the beach. The shape of a beach is classified as straight, con- cave, or convex. The coastline is marked by the limit of normal wave action and is classified as cliff, dune, or plain.

Beach width is the average distance from the low-waterline to the coastline. The datum plane is used to determine the shoreline and the low-water line.

The foreshore is part of the shore or beach that lies between the extreme low- water line and the upper limit of normal waves. The composition of the foreshore may be silt, mud, gravel, boulders, rock, coral, or any combination. The gradient (or percentage of slope) of the foreshore is expressed as a ratio of water depth to horizontal distance. See the TACBEREP message format at Appendix D. The Backshore width is measured from the upper limit of normal wave action inland to the extreme limit of storm wave action. Backshore gradient and com- position of the backshore are identified in the same manner as those of the fore- shore. Vegetation is often found growing here since it is normally dry and acted upon only by storm waves.

The hinterland is the area extending five miles inland. It begins at the coastline (the first line of permanent vegetation).

Beach Survey Procedures. Beach survey procedures will vary according to METT-T and the permissiveness of the environment. During the reconnaissance, each swimmer records obstacles, wave height, surf conditions, and other perti- nent information. Time and azimuth are used to record distances and locations, which will be approximate even under optimal water and light conditions. The procedures described below characterize a relatively simple tactical beach recon- naissance (see Figure 3-4, page 3-5).

Two-man swim teams are dropped off by aircraft or watercraft parallel to the beach and outside the surf zone. One man in each team carries a leadline for mea- suring depths. The other man in the team is the recorder. There are normally two swimmers for every 25 meters of beach to be reconnoitered. The team leader and assistant team leader are paired in the center of the formation and act as a guide and reference point for the other teams in the line.

Upon signal from the guide team, the swimmers move toward the beach. The guide team may use a compass to help in swimming a predetermined course to and from the beach, or it may guide on a designated object on the beach. Teams remain at 25-meter intervals and swim parallel to each other as they slowly move toward the beach. With a current in excess of 2 knots, the SFOD will tend to drift in the direction of current.

Just outside the surf zone, each team halts and examines the beach and as far into the backshore as can be seen.

When the leadline man in each team estimates the depth is 6.5 meters (usually the depth at which recordings are first made), he lowers his line.

When the leadline touches the bottom, the leadline man notifies his buddy (the recorder) who signals the guide team to stop. The recorder records the depth on his slate.

The guide team estimates the distance to the high watermark and signals all teams to take a sounding.

From this point on, soundings are recorded every meter towards the target area until a 1.8-meter depth is reached and then at 0.3-meter increments up to the wa- ter’s edge. Whenever a swim team reaches a 5.5-, 3.6-, or 1.8-meter sounding, it also takes a bottom sample. On the seaward lane the process is reversed. At the high waterline (or at the water’s edge if the team leader has determined that is the safe limit for the team), all teams shift left 12.5 meters with each team recording the beach gradient and any other significant foreshore, backshore, or hinterland features in its area. A technique for measuring the beach gradient is illustrated in Figure 3-5. Each swim team also covers its assigned sector of fire to protect the team from surprise attack from its front or flanks.

When the shift left has been completed, all teams swim back out to sea, taking soundings as before, following the guide pair. Once the mission is complete, the swim teams will then be extracted. Extraction may be at a prearranged time or after a prearranged signal from the pickup craft.

Key Points. Several key points need to be kept in mind as the SFOD conducts a tactical beach survey.

One team of swimmers should be designated beforehand to observe the surf for a SURFREP rather than take soundings during the reconnaissance.

If the recconnaissance is to be accurate, the swim teams must maintain the proper interval and all pairs must follow the guide throughout the reconnaissance. An- other technique to add accuracy is to have a third swimmer with a 25-meter line accompany the guide pair, he can swim ahead to where the next sounding should be taken. This procedure can also help verify the guide’s initial distance estimate. When making a dive during a tactical survey, swimmers must ensure noise and/or light discipline for security purposes. Swimmers should be careful to avoid detection from the beach. They should avoid allowing the sun to reflect off the face mask, holding the line or slate above water when sounding or recording, proceeding into shallow water, or raising the body out of the water when close to the beach.

During each beach survey, thorough photographic coverage is essential. See Ap- pendix C. The areas to be covered are—

Offshore to hinterland panoramas. Backshore and hinterland panoramas.

Beach exits. Hinterlands. Miscellaneous.

From both the left and right flanks of the beach, standing at the water’s edge, the photographer takes overlapping panoramic views beginning offshore and sweep- ing inshore. If light conditions permit, a videocamera is used. The frames show the approaches, reefs, waterlines, full length of the beach, full width of the beach, and beach gradient.

From the scarp at the center of the beach, the photographer takes a panorama of the backshore and hinterland, ridges, escarpments, vegetation, and obstacles. The photographer obtains medium views and close-ups emphasizing location, surrounding features, and trafficability. He takes views from the beach facing in- land and from the high ground inland facing seaward.

The frames of the hinterland show vegetation, soil and reck types, trafficability indications such as wheel tracks and swamp areas, obstacles, habitation, roads, and defenses or defendable positions.

The photographer takes pictures that show conditions or obstacles that will help identify the material composition and trafficability of the beach. He should take complete coverage (including close-ups) of any features encroaching on or limit- ing the usefulness of the landing areas, such as hazards to approach and barriers to egress. He includes personal or familiar objects in photographs to help the in- terpreter in determining measurements, All photographs are logged as described in Appendix C.

Hydrographic Surveys

A hydrographic survey is the collection and assessment of data about specific bodies of water and marginal land areas and their effects on operations. A hydro- graphic survey and beach survey overlap in that they both involve the collection of data relative to the foreshore area. The survey may be conducted openly or

clandestinely. SFODs normally do hydrographic surveys to confirm or verify in- formation on a particular body of water and marginal land areas. The hydrographic survey report is written in message format, depending on mission requirements. The written report may be accompanied by sketches (see Figure 3-6), overlays, photographs, and exposed film, bottom samples from the foreshore and nearshore approaches are also attached to amplify information contained in the report. The sketch that accompanies the report is to scale. It shows the shoreline; the 1-, 2-, and 3-fathom curves; the foreshore; obstacles cultural features; beach flanks; and beach interruptions as seen from above. The sketch depicts the nearshore and fore- shore gradients by showing three cross-sections taken at the beach center and in the middle of the left and right sections of the beach. The vertical scale of the cress-sections is usually larger than the horizontal scale of the cross-sections. All soundings by the survey party are shown on the sketch. The intelligence NCO, under the supervision of the SFOD technician, prepares the hydrographic survey report in accordance with the format at Appendix D. In the course of doing a hy- drographic survey, the survey team may prepare SURFREPs and river/estuary reports (DELTREPs).

Ports Reconnaissance

A port is a town or city having a harbor for ships taking on or discharging cargo. Because of the high density of man-made structures and their relevance to SO, the SR of ports combines the techniques of hydrographic survey; AA; technical evaluation and CARVER analysis; and mapping, sketching and photographing (Appendix C). SFODs can conduct port reconnaissance overtly or clandestinely. The emphasis in port reconnaissance is the identification, location, and assess- ment of critical infrastructure and the accessibility and vulnerability of that infra- structure. At a minimum, port surveys address—

Access routes, capacities, and conditions of cargo, refueling, and repair berths and other facilities.

Bulk energy production, storage, transmission, and distribution (petroleum, oils, and lubricants [POL], electric power).

Telecommunications (radio, television, telephone).

Transportation, LOC, and associated facilities (railroads, highways, bridges, and airfields).

Bulk water supply. Bulk storage of dry goods. Health services.

Government administration and services. Fire and security services.

Local military forces. Wateway Reconnaissance

Waterways include trafficable estuaries, rivers, canals, locks, and other associ- ated structures such as bridges and dams. SFODs perform waterway surveys in much the same way as they do coastal hydrographic surveys. The basic message format used is the DELTREP (Appendix D). In inland surveys of integrated transportation, the SFOD maps out the transportation network infrastructure, fo- cusing on critical nodes and choke points within this network. The basic message formats used in the reconnaissance of land routes are the routes and roads report (ROUTEREP) and bridge report (BRIDGEREP).