Peru: Country and People

Empire constituted of 90 different ethnic groups. The Spanish chronicles inform about the expansion and domination strategies of the Incas, which included the military force and the diplomatic negotiation up to provisional alliances between the Incas and the conquered populations. It is certainly difficult to know the precise zone in which each ayllu or ethnic group was located originally, because under the Inca dominion it was common to resettle the groups in new geographical zones (cf. Rostworowski 1988:24).

The colonial period lasted about 300 years (1532-1821). Spanish colonial domination was concentrated in the coastal area of Peru (with Lima and the port of Callao as centres) and also in some parts of the Andes where mines were exploited. The Republican period began in 1821 with the official declaration of independence of the country up to today. During the first half of the 20^th century, besides the African slaves introduced during the Colonia, Chinese were integrated to the country as foreign workers. Since the colonial and republican period groups of European (German, French, and Italian) and Asiatic voluntary immigrants also came to the country (Korean, Lebanese, Palestinian, Syrian and Israeli).

According to the census of the year 2007, 33.3% of the total population reside in the region of Lima and Callao, followed by Piura (6.5%), La Libertad (5.9%), Cajamarca (5.2%), Puno (4.7%), Junín (4.5%) and Cusco (4.2%), which as a whole represents more than 60% of Peru’s population (INEI 2008). Lima is of big economic importance for the country, which is evident in its contribution to the national gross domestic product (GDP), in which alone Lima generates 52.2% of the total of the GDP of Peru (MINSA 2011:14). The national urban population is around 76% of the registered population. The regions with a bigger percentage of urban population (more than 75%) are Lima and Callao with 98%, Tacna (91%), Tumbes (91%), Arequipa (91%), Ica (89%), Moquegua (85%) and Lambayeque with 80% (INEI 2008). On the other hand, those cities with a rural population bigger than 65% are Huancavelica (68%) and Cajamarca (67%). Regarding the age distribution, men constitute 50.3% of the Peruvian population and 49.7% are women. 23.9% of the population are children (under 12- years-old); 12.6% teenagers (12 to 17 years); 21.5% young (18 to 29 years); 32.8%

adults (30 to 59 years); and 9.1% correspond to major adults (60 to more years) (MINSA 2010a:14).

Politically Peru is divided into 25 departamentos, these again in 194 provinces. A long- dated decentralization process of the country has been concluded officially in 2002, after several unsuccessful attempts. The regional governments were elected to manage the departments until their fusion into definitive regions, which are also 25. Although considered by specialists a social conquest, the decentralization process after ten years of implementation is no longer fully accomplished. According to Monge, one of the principal difficulties refers to the fact that the decentralization of competences is associated with fiscal decentralization, which shows a conceptual error in which the transfer of functions has no cost, and on the other hand to think about the budget transfer without regard for what is transferred, when the logical thing is to give the necessary human and financial resources for the transfer of functions (CIES 2009:11).

In the practice, there are transfers of powers without any level of fiscal decentralization, which makes the autonomous reforms, for a first implementation period, unviable.

The indigenous population is estimated at 8,793,295 people, eight million of which are Quechua-Andinos, 603,000 Aymara and 190,295 indigenous Amazonian peoples distributed throughout the national territory (Alcalde-Rabanal et al. 2011:245).

Providing other statistics, the Instituto Nacional de Desarrollo de Pueblos Andinos, Amazónicos y Afroperuanos INDEPA has formulated an ethno-linguistic map of Peru, which has received contributions of official institutions and persons linked to indigenous matters such as INEI, and COFOPRI⁷⁹, among others. The map locates in the national territory the indigenous peoples at the present and its correspondent distributional area. For the outline of the map the INDEPA made a classification of the indigenous groups according to linguistic families. Following, there are 3,919,314 persons of 5 years and more who speak indigenous languages in the country; from this group, more than three quarters (3,261,750) are Quechua speaking; 434,370 Aymara

79 Sp. Organismo de Formalización de la Propiedad Informal (Organism for the Formalisation of non-

speaking, and 223,194 speak other native language. All of them are organised in 7,849 communities, from which 6.063 are rural and 1.786 native. According to this distribution, there are 76 ethnic groups in the country; 15 are located in the Andean area: Cañaris, Cajamarca, Huancas, Choccas, Wari, Chancas, Vicus, Yauyos, Queros, Jaqaru, Aymaras, Xauxas, Yaruwilcas, Tarumas and Uros. 60 are situated in the Amazon and one on the coast, the Walingos, all of which are grouped into 16 ethno- linguistic families: Arawak, Aru, Cahuapana, Harakmbut, Huitoto, Jibaro, Pano, Peba- Yagua, Quechua, Romance, Tacana, Tucano, Tupi-Guaraní, Uro-Chipaya, Zaparo and one without classification.

Fig. 6: Ethnolinguistic Map of Peru (INDEPA 2010:290)

The INDEPA notices that with exception of the Resigaros –a group speaking Huitoto, which has been identified as part of the Arawak linguistic family– the Quichua, Inga and Alamas ethnic groups from the Quechua family are considered part of the language of the Napo-Pastaza-Tigre area. Similarly, the Walingos of the coast speak Spanish, but they still preserve their proper identity as mangrove culture. In the Altiplano area, the Peruvian Uros –in contrast to the Bolivian Uros that speak mainly Uro– speak Aymara, and keep on being identified as Uros. Also among the Quechua linguistic family the distribution is not categorical, with the exception of the Vicos belonging to the language Ancash-Yaru. The same is the case among the language Ayacucho-Cusco, for which the ethnic groups Chopcca, Chancas, Wari, and Keros exists; and for the language group of Cañaris-Cajamarca with two ethnic groups, Cañaris and Cajamarca and, inside the language Jauja-Huanca, the ethnic groups of Huanca, Tarumas and Xauxas. According to this study, there is not always a correspondence between ethnic group and language, and being indigenous of a specific group does not necessarily mean to speak its original language (INDEPA 2010:288-289). Although it could be a clear statement for many social scientists, it is necessary here to point out that the relation between ethnical and cultural relatedness and language is not a unique criterion to differentiate and classify ethnic groups, something that is more based on the history of the expansion and introduction of the Catholic religion among indigenous communities, an evangelisation process in Peru that dates back to the colonial period⁸⁰. This questioning is also included in the analysis provided by the INDEPA (2010), in which the 76 ethnic groups listed in their map are related to 68 languages. As is the case for many migrant and colonized groups in history, language could become lost, or in disuse, or get subordinated in order to adopt other mainstream language to be able to communicate. Anyhow, in this process, indigenous and non-indigenous cross-linguistic peoples do not inevitably lose their original ethnical ascription.

In case of the Amazonian basin, the approximately 1,786 ethnic groups are organised, for the most part, in native communities that are connected to the national society in

80 See an analysis of the Instituto Lingüístico de Verano (Summer Institute of Linguistics) a non-profit

some way. Due to the regional governments, on the basis of the Law 28736⁸¹ Ley para la Protección de Pueblos Indígenas Originarios en Situación de Aislamiento y en Situación de Contacto Inicial (Law for the Protection of the Indigenous Original Peoples in Isolation and Initial Contact), and the supreme decree 008-2007-MIMDES Regulation of the Law 28736, they have recognised and protect five territorial reservoirs: Kugapakori-Nahua-Nantis and others, Mashco - Piro, Madre de Dios (Amarakaeri, Yaminahua and Yora), Isconahua and Morunahua. For centuries, these ethnic groups have faced continuous forced intercultural breakdowns with foreigners, mostly merchants or colonists. Due to the amount of population in these areas and to the natural resources they possess, the colonos have converted the forest into the second migration destination of the country after the coast.

In regard to the indigenous population there are some discrepancies about the exact number of ethnic groups in the country. According to the Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación CVR (Commission for Truth and Reconciliation), 30% of the population in Peru is indigenous (CVR 2004:22). Based on the sociolinguistic criterion, the INEI estimates in accordance with the National Census of 2007 (INEI 2008) that 4,045,713 of all 3-year-old Peruvian children learned to speak in an original (indigenous) language, which represents 16% of the whole of Peruvians of this age (Benavides, Mena and Ponce 2010:16). Within this group, most of the indigenous population has Quechua as maternal tongue (83%), followed by Aymara (11%). In comparison to other indigenous groups, the Quechua and Aymara speaking populations reside in major proportion in urban areas: 46% and 43% respectively. In the Amazonia, the indigenous peoples are about 242,000 settlers (6% of the indigenous population in total) and most of them (more than 80%) reside in rural areas (INEI 2008). According to the PNUD, the Afro- Peruvians⁸² are about 3% of the whole population (Diaz and Madalengoitia 2012:18).

81 See: http://www.congreso.gob.pe/ntley/Imagenes/Leyes/28736.pdf

82 While the national census asks for the language of the inquired people –as a fact that the mother tongue is a secure indicator of ethnical ascription– the Afro-Peruvian population is not considered in the official statistics. It is necessary to include a self-identification item to cover this deplorable mistake. Anyway, the INDEPA has identified 112 towns in which they are more concentrated, such as Caravelí (Arequipa);

Santa (Ancash); Chincha, Pisco, Ica (Ica); Chiclayo, Callao, Cañete, Huaral, Lima (Lima); and Morropón (Piura).

Table 4: Ethno-linguistic Groups in Peru

I. ARAWAW (PENON ALTO) 1. Asháninka (our relative) 2. Ashéninka (brother) 3. Atiri (fellow) 4. Caquinte (people) 5. Chamicuro (people) 6. Madija (people) 7. Matsiguenga (person) 7.1. Noshaninkajeg 8. Resígaro (people) 9. Yanesha (we, the people) 10. Yine (people)

10.1. Kapexuchi-Nawa II. ARU (SPEAK) 11. Aymara (old voice) 12. Jakaru (people’s talk) III. CAHUAPANA

13. Campo-Piyapi (we, the people) 14. Shiwlu (people)

IV. ROMANCE 15. Castellano

V. HARAKMBUT (BROTHER) 16. Amarakaeri (people) 17. Arasaire (human being)

18. Huachipaeri (man living under the bridge) 19. Kisamberi (human being)

20. Pukirieri (human being) 21. Sapiteri (employee) 22. Toyoeri (human being) VI. HUITOTO (PLANT) 23. Dyo’ xaiya o Ivo’tsa (person) 24. Meneca (person)

25. Miamuna (people) 26. Muinane (people) 27. Murui (group of people)

VII. JÍBARO (BATTLE-HARDENED) 28. Achuar (people)

29. Awajun (weaver)

30. Candoshi-Shappra (more people) 31. Jíbaro (brave)

32. Shuar-Wampis (people) VIII. PANO (SIBLINGS) 33. Iscobaquebu (people) 34. Joni (people)

35. Junikuin (genuine people) 36. Masrronahua (water people) 37. Matsés (people)

38. Morunahua (people) 38.1. Morunahu

39. Nuquencaibo (our people) 40. Onicoin (real people) 41. Parquenahua (people) 42. Pisabo (all the people)

43. Uni (people)

43.1. Cashibo - Cacataibo 44. Yaminahua (iron people) 45. Yora (people)

IX. PEBA-YAGUA 46. Yihamwo (people)

X. QUECHUA (MILD WEATHER) 47. Ancash- Yaru

47.1 Vicos (wrongfully thing) 47.2 Yaruvilcas

48. Ayacucho - Cusco 48.1 Chancas (legs)

48.2 Chopccas (selected folk) 48.3 Quero (coloured wooden mug) 48.4 Wari (Alpaca)

49. Cañaris - Cajamarca

49.1 Cajamarca (town or space with thorns) 49.2 Cañaris (snake and ara)

50. Chachapoyas - Lamas 50.1 Llacuash (grill fingerboard) 51. Jauja - Huanca

51.1. Huancas (cliff) 51.2. Tarumas 51.3. Xauxas (valley) 52. Napo - Pastaza - Tigre 52.1. Alamas

52.2. Ingas (inca, emperor) 52.3 Quichua (mild temperature) 53. Santarrosino

53.1 Kichwaruna (harvester) 54. Supralecto Yauyos 54.1. Yauyos (warlike people) XI. WITHOUT CLASSIFICATION 55. Aguano (mahogany)

56. Duüxügu (people) 57. Kachá Edze (people) 58. Walingos (mangrove people) XII. TACANA

59. Ese’ejja (children of water) XIII. TUCANO (SCALPS) 60. Aido pa (forest people) 61. Maijuna (fellows) 62. Monichis

XIV. TUPI-GUARANÍ 63. Cocama-Cocamilla (people) 64. Omagua (lower Amazonia) XV. URO-CHIPAYA

65. Uro (dawn children)

XVI. ZAPARO (PEOPLE WHERE THE SUN RISES)

66. Iquito (pain) 67. Ite’chi (people)

68. Tapueyocuaca (sibling, family)

Area and population information of this list has been retrieved from official data by the INDEPA. The numbers correspond to ethnic groups signed in prior map (INDEPA 2010:291, t. sp.).