Por ejemplo, el Cuadro 1 presenta el valor de la energía en el mercado mayorista de ERCOT en la ciudad de Austin, Texas. El gráfico 2 muestra, para una semana determinada de julio en Chichester (Nueva York), el efecto de añadir dos tarifas sobre los precios de la energía. Precio de la energía (LmP* + Pérdidas de Distribución) y cargos por capacidad de generación y red.
Los precios de la energía, que reflejan los costos marginales de producir y transportar energía, también cambian con la ubicación del consumo y el suministro de energía en el sistema. Este efecto de las variaciones locales en los precios de la electricidad se refleja de diferentes maneras en diferentes mercados. Por ejemplo, el gráfico 7 representa los valores de tensión observados en los distintos nodos de la red y cómo se correlacionan con los precios nodales de la potencia reactiva.
Por otro lado, además de los precios de la energía, los cargos por capacidad de la red también coinciden con los periodos de máximo uso de la red. El gráfico 9 compara el peso de los costes incluidos en la tarifa eléctrica con los costes asociados a desconectarse de la red y volverse autosostenibles. Desde un punto de vista de eficiencia global, un adecuado diseño de la tarifa y de los costes incluidos en la misma deben evitar prácticas ineficientes de desconexión de la red.
Costes y beneficios de la desconexión de la red desde el punto de vista del consumidor.
New regulatory and business model approaches to achieving universal electricity access*
Essential features of the energy sector that are taken for granted in the regulation of electricity in industrialized countries simply do not apply to the least developed countries. 4 These $48 billion per year represent less than 2% of annual electricity costs in OECD countries. There are more than 200 in the world, organized into 12 regional associations that are members of the International Confederation of Energy Regulators.
Most of the existing off-grid solutions, while having a very positive impact in providing basic energy services, are not focused on productive use – the main driver of job creation and economic growth. However, the fundamentals of the regulatory approach in more developed countries remain stable despite the need for improvement. Customers are charged distribution service charges which are included in their final tariffs as determined by the regulatory authority.
The next section will examine the status of these assumptions in the energy sectors of least developed countries, where a high percentage of the population lives without access to electricity. Many people without access are located in remote areas that grid expansion will not reach for a long time, if not ever, so other viable off-grid solutions need to be introduced. The origin of this situation may be heavily subsidized tariffs, which cannot cover the supply costs for both network expansion and the purchase of a large amount of electricity for distribution.
The unfortunate implication of having a large proportion of the population without electricity access is that it is not viable to cross-subsidise any electrification that remains to be done with an increase in the rates of those with access. 22 These households at the bottom of the pyramid happen to pay much more per kWh of electricity than everyone connected to the grid in developing and developed countries. How do we define these imperfect services (i.e., the reliability of the proposed service) so that they make sense as real options for the customers to be provided?23.
A viable business model must take into account the preferences, priorities, social, behavioral and cultural characteristics of the beneficiaries. The financial design of the electrification plan must make sense from the start and forever. Here, maintenance procedures are critical and must be included in the electrification plan and the selection of the delivery technology and business model from the outset.
Innovative financing approaches that are tailored to the specific conditions of the energy sector in less developed countries can facilitate investments in major infrastructures. Other distribution and management costs will be subsidized through a franchise fee paid by the distribution company to the microgrid operator, determined by mutual agreement of the distributor and the microgrid.
How the tight oil boom has changed oil and gasoline markets*
At the same time, there has been much interest in whether the tight oil boom has fundamentally changed the transmission of oil price shocks to the US. Thus, the additional decline in the WTI price relative to the Brent price during the tight oil boom was not passed on to the retail price of gasoline. 2 The development of tight oil production was preceded by the development of tight (natural) gas (see Mason, Muehlenbachs y Olmstead, 2015; Hausman and Kellogg, 2015).
However, before discussing the effect of the tight oil boom on oil prices, it is useful to quantify the increase in tight oil production and, as a result, in the US total, of particular interest is that how slow tight oil production has been to respond. to the decline in the real price of WTI since June 2014. The tight oil boom is a classic example of a technology shock causing an exogenous shift in the supply of a commodity.
One could thus expect that the tight oil boom would, all other things being equal, have lowered the global price of crude oil. How the tight oil boom affected the WTI price relative to the Brent price. Appendix 3 shows the development of three benchmarks for the price of light sweet crude oil. Nor was there enough capacity to ship the dense oil to the Gulf Coast by rail.
In short, what used to be a local glut of oil in Cushing has been transformed in the United States into a nationwide glut, fueled by the tight oil boom. Exhibit 4 highlights that oil supply shocks have played an important role in explaining the decline in the real price of oil since June 2014, but these oil supply shocks reflect unexpected changes in oil production worldwide and cannot be attributed solely to the tight oil boom. Exhibit 6 shows that the cumulative effect of the tight oil boom on the Brent price began to build gradually after 2010 and peaked in mid-2014, before declining in late 2014.
This point is important because it implies that the effect of the tight oil boom on the global price of gasoline and therefore on the US ECONOMY Although the tight oil boom was not the main cause of the decline in the global real price of oil that occurred did not after June 2014, the USA A question of obvious importance is that determines investment decisions in the oil sector in general and in the tight oil sector in particular.
Another difference, however, is that investments in the tight oil sector have a much shorter horizon. The investment decision of tight oil producers therefore depends exclusively on the expected short-term development of the oil price.
Junio 2017
