Actitudes hacia la formación de los alumnos

CASE STUDY: The detailed examination of a single example of a class of phenomena, a case study cannot provide reliable information about the broader class. But it is often useful in the preliminary stages of an investigation since it provides

hypotheses which may be tested systematically with a larger number of cases...Cases are selected to represent what, on the basis of theory or prior knowledge, are thought to be contrasting examples...Case studies may provide data of a richness and detail that are difficult to obtain from broader surveys, but at the cost of a lack of generalisability. (Abercrombie et al. 1994:46-7).

In addition to the interviews with the social workers, I also conducted a detailed case study of a lesbian couple’s application to adopt. This forms the entirety of chapter six of the thesis, in which I analyse the experiences of the couple, whom

we decided between us to call ‘Nita and Clare’. Once again, the process of analysis is summarised in Appendix 2.b (p. 412). However, I think that it is important to begin with a definition of what is meant by ‘a case study’, the

standard version demonstrated by the quotation from Abercrombie et al. (1994). There are a number of definitions within existing literature (Abramson 1992; Bradshaw & Wallace 1991; Feagin et al. 1991; Hamel et al. 1993; Hartley 1994; Langrish 1993; Orum et al. 1991; Platt 1988, 1992; Ragin & Becker 1992; H. Rose 1991; Schuller 1988; Sjoberg et al. 1991; Stake 1994, 1995; Stoecker 1991; Yin 1981, 1984, 1992, 1993). Yin (1984), for example, suggests that a case study is an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within a real-life context, when the boundaries between the phenomenon and its context are unclear, and in which multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin 1984:23). Stake (1995) writes that case study is "the study of the particularity and complexity of a single case, coming to understand its activity within important circumstances" (Stake 1995:xi), while Stoecker suggests case studies are "those

research projects which attempt to explain wholistically [sic] the dynamics of a

certain historical period of a particular social unit." (Stoecker 1991:97-8). Orum et al. (1991) argue that a case study is "an in-depth, multifaceted investigation, using qualitative research methods, of a single social phenomenon. The study is conducted in great detail and often relies on the use of several data sources."

(Orum et al. 1991:2).

investigation of a social group, persons, community, activity or events, bordered by a set of boundaries which are said to define 'the case'. Case studies rely upon multiple sources of evidence, and the use of multiple methods. Where my

understanding of case studies differs from the definitions in existing literature is in the fact that I would like to emphasize the role of auto/biographical processes (Cotterill & Letherby 1993; Stanley 1992b, 1993, 1994; Swindells 1995) in their production, an idea which raises the issue of case studies as ‘fictional accounts of lives’, a point I shall return to later.

There are many reasons why I decided to use a case study as part of the

research for my thesis. In particular I felt that, because lesbian and gay fostering and adoption is so little researched and because issues concerning the

assessment of such carers are complex, then it would be helpful for the reader to have at least one in-depth story, something that would be engaging but also exemplary. I also wanted to show how my research data is both complex and detailed, dealing with aspects other than just sexuality alone. I therefore felt that Nita and Clare's story, dealing as it does with issues of gender, race and ethnicity as much as lesbianism, would help to illuminate such intersecting dynamics. I anticipated that a case study would focus on the processes of social work assessment, and also be able to investigate the differing meanings given to these by the actors themselves, and I wanted to be able to look at an

So why did I choose to work with Nita and Clare for my case study? Partly this was opportunistic; they had expressed interest in my research, and when I

suggested working with them on a case study they were only too pleased to help. This involved no small amount of labour on their part, since I asked them to participate in three separate interviews, each of at least 90 minutes. But more especially, they felt it was likely that the social worker that had assessed them, Barbara, would also agree to be interviewed, and they were prepared to let me see their assessment report form (Form F) which contained detailed personal information.

Additionally, I wanted to locate human subjects within the text of my thesis, but of course this was not a simple issue, and I cannot say that Nita and Clare have been straightforwardly 'allowed to tell their story', since ultimately it is my

representation of them that is this text. Nevertheless I have worked closely with them on this case study, seeking their active feedback on my writings, and I have used their own words wherever possible. By this I mean that I have relied upon their own theorizing of events as much as my own, that we inhabited the same 'critical plane' from which to interpret social actions (Stanley & Wise 1993: 8), rather than suggesting that I have been able to get to a single foundational 'truth' about the case. We developed a good research relationship, and I hope that I have been able to reflect Nita and Clare's active resistance to oppression, their resistance to being concretely positioned by social workers, and their active theorizing of their own experiences in this text.

What interested me most about doing a case study, however, was not the issues of design and method, but rather the auto/biographical processes that were involved in constructing Nita and Clare's 'story'. Stanley (1992b, 1993) argues that the easy distinction popularly made between autobiography and biography is in fact not so easy (Stanley 1992b:3; 1993:42). Any auto/biography is an artful construction within narrative, and versions of a ‘life’ may be hotly contested as Jacqueline Rose’s The Haunting of Sylvia Plath so expertly points out (J. Rose 1991). Thus the text has a complex relationship with the material realities of the life it describes (Stanley 1992b:243). In this sense, then, I have not simply recorded a faithful rendition of the 'truth' of Nita and Clare's accounts. I have interpreted what they said, taken the parts that I felt to be significant or

meaningful to my research, and put them together as the case study. However, I do see the text as an interplay of my writing with their voices, and I think that they are very much 'present' in the text.

What I am arguing here, then, is that doing a case study involved processes of constructing a version of life experiences. Thus the different voices within the case study are contestations of what happened, and they do not always agree. For example, Barbara told me that she thought through the kinds of questions she would need to ask a lesbian couple in advance of doing the assessment. Nita and Clare, however, argued that they were responsible for raising the specifics of lesbian adoption and that Barbara would not have done so if they

hadn't. How, then, do we understand such claims based upon experience via memory? Many positivist researchers have argued that such claims are

problematic and unreliable, but like Stanley (1994), I cannot see why knowledge based upon experience should be any more or less problematic than other claims. ‘Experience’ itself is never ‘raw’ and obvious, but must be made sense of (Scott 1993) and all claims are rooted in the knowledge-production processes (Stanley 1994:146).

As I have said, it is the interplay of voices, of versions of the past, that interested me most in doing the case study, so where there were disagreements I recorded them. I gave my accounts to Nita and Clare to get active feedback from them, and they commented on these. These comments form the basis of footnotes provided in my final version of chapter six. I argue that case study allows for the generation of complex and contradictory data that can highlight the contestation of meanings given to events or concepts by different social actors. The social 'world' is messy, contradictory and full of dispute, and so the case study is helpful for showing this. This is why I felt it was methodologically appropriate to a 'story' which, at the very least, was concerned with contestations of categories such as 'lesbian', 'Hindu', 'Asian', or 'gender role'.

One of the most frequent objections to case study research is that it proves nothing, since relying upon a case of one does not allow for generalization (Abercrombie et al. 1994:47). However, this critique is based upon a positivist

epistemology that sees knowledge as inhering in the statistical generalisability and validity of findings. Case studies are not based upon such an epistemology in my view, since they are concerned with the investigation of a single case in detail in order to theorize about actors' accounts of social processes. A case study is not a population 'sample' from which to generalize statistically. Indeed a case may be studied for its uniqueness and diversion from the 'norm' alone (Langrish 1993).

Many writers argue that case studies use analytical, rather than statistical generalization (Yin 1993); that is, they can be used to generate, and generalize to the level of, theory (Hartley 1994:225; Orum et al. 1991:13; Platt 1988:17; Yin 1992:126, 1993:39), and it can be seen from my own case study of Nita and Clare that I believe this to be true. I have theorized from the data concerning the intersecting dynamics of race, gender and sexuality, and have generalized from this about how the category 'lesbian' is represented via the processes of social work assessment.

Stoecker (1991) interestingly points out that writers such as Yin (1984, 1993) defend case study research by claiming that it incorporates 'scientific rigour' (Stoecker 1991:92). Yin (1984) is very keen to emphasize the validity and reliability of case study research, especially through the use of triangulation and multiple cases. In his article, 'The Case Study Method as a Tool for Doing Evaluation' (Yin 1992), Yin clearly states that case study assumes a "single

objective reality that can be investigated by following the traditional rules of scientific inquiry." (Yin 1992:128). Stoecker (1991) argues that, instead of

defending the scientific rigour of case studies, we might critique the foundational basis of such an emphasis. Certainly I do not assume a 'single objective reality' as the basis for my case study research and, relatedly, would not argue that my research design has allowed me access to such a seamless 'truth' about the social world. I also argue that a case study is particularly appropriate where detailed sensitive information (Lee 1993) is needed regarding the processes and interactions of social work policy and practices.

I was therefore able to study events from a number of different 'points of view', what some writers call 'triangulation' of the data (O'Connell Davidson & Layder 1994:55; Silverman 1993:156). For example, in looking at their assessment by Barbara, I used mixed sources as follows:

Mixed Data Sources in the Case Study

social worker version Form F report version

applicant one version---THE COUPLE---applicant two version

I also had to define what I saw as my 'case', and the boundaries for my data sources, and I used the following:

• three in-depth interviews with Nita and Clare, looking at pre-assessment,

assessment and post-assessment issues.

• an interview with the assessing social worker, Barbara.

• the 'Form F' assessment report presented to the adoption panel. • the Midlands Council Equal Opportunities Policy Statement.

• letter from the Assistant Director (Children's Services) of the Midlands Council

to the couple.

• letter of complaint by the couple to the Chief Executive of the Midlands

Council.

• complaint investigation reports of the Investigating Officer (Midlands Council)

and the Independent Person.

My methods, therefore, were in-depth qualitative interviewing, for which I used an interview guide (schedule), but also the analysis of documentary sources. I

recorded my interviews on audio tape (with Nita and Clare) and by hand (with Barbara who did not want to be taped), and then transcribed these verbatim. I reviewed each interview before going on to do the next one, noting questions I needed to ask again and areas that were emerging as significant from the data. The research involved a number of ethical issues especially concerning

confidentiality. I made agreements with my subjects about how to refer to them and I felt I had to be especially careful not to identify the Northern City Council, since Barbara was the only black worker in the adoption unit, and Nita & Clare could be easily identified as a ‘mixed race', and the first out lesbian, couple to adopt. Their Form F report also contained detailed personal information, and we agreed that the couple would delete their names, and any parts they did not want me to read, from the document.