La analogía como una explicación indirecta útil en la pedagogía

Neuman (2011) cites reliability and validity as ideas that help to establish the ‘credibility’ of findings. Reliability aims towards the consistency or replication of

research findings in similar conditions, while validity evaluates the truthfulness of findings (Fink, 2006). The latter can be demonstrated in three ways: the validity of selected measures or ‘construct validity’, ‘internal validity’ and ‘external validity’. Most often, validity is associated with the ‘operationalisation’ of concepts, which is commonly used in quantitative research (Mason, 2002). Although reliability and validity are treated separately in quantitative studies, these terms are not viewed separately in qualitative research. Instead, terminology that encompasses both, such as credibility, transferability, trustworthiness or dependability, and confirmability are used (Hoepfl, 1997; Riege, 2003). Internal validity is used for establishing causal relationships and external validity deals with the generalisation of findings (Neuman, 2011). Generalisability aims towards making general conclusions based on the research findings, rather than them being particular to the research context. Moreover, Miles and Huberman (1994) noted key questions that need to be asked in

the domains of reliability, internal validity and external validity as illustrates in the Table 4-6.

Table 4-6: Key considerations of validity and reliability

Component Reliability Internal validity External validity

Research question

Clear? Matches with the research design?

Meaningful? Defines the scope and delimitations?

Role of the researcher

Described explicitly?

Data Across the

suggested full range?

Rich? Well linked to the emerging theory? Any negative evidence? Rival explanations? True representative sample? Any threats to generalisability? Research paradigms Clearly specified?

Participants Any comparable data collection protocol? Checks Coding? Quality/bias? Uncertainty? Research findings and conclusions Meaningful parallelism across the data sources?

Did triangulation provide uniting conclusions? Internally coherent? Replicated in other parts of the research? Considered accurate by original informants? Consistent? Connected to prior theory? Applicable? Narrative sequence? Could fruitfully be tested further?

Yin (2003) proposed two types of generalisation: i.e. statistical generalisations and analytic generalisations. Statistical generalisation is established by an inference made about a population on the basis of empirical data collected about a sample and that the analytic generalisation is employed as a framework with which to collate the empirical results of the case study (Yin, 2003). Supportively, Kohn (1997) noted that in the case study method, the researcher does not use statistical generalisation, but rather, generalises to theory.

This study exploited analytical generalisation in the case studies. The key method adopted to analyse multiple case studies was ‘replication’. Kohn (1997) explained

that the primary focus of the analysis is on the overall pattern of results and the extent to which the observed pattern of variables matches a predicted one.

Further attention was paid to explain the validity and reliability issues particular to case study research, as this investigation was fundamentally supported by three main cases. Construct validity, internal validity and reliability tests were undertaken to check the confirmability, credibility and dependability/trustworthiness of the findings. Construct validity was tested through multiple sources of evidence (i.e. case study information, participant observations etc.). The method ‘triangulation’ was used to test the internal validity of this study. ‘Triangulation’ is a popular technique for testing

the credibility of findings in qualitative research. On the other hand, it is identified as a very powerful technique to gain insights and results, assisting in making inferences and drawing conclusions. Simply, triangulation is a ‘means of cross-checking the

relevance and significance of issues or testing out arguments and perspectives from different angles to generate and strengthen evidence in support of key claims’

(Simons, 2009 p.129). In a way, it is a ‘validity procedure where researchers search

for convergence among multiple and different sources of information to form themes or categories in a study’ (Creswell and Miller, 2000 p.126). Case - cross case

analysis (explained in chapter 5) and the use of multiple research methods to collect data assures the internal coherence of findings.

This study exploited the method of triangulation to find the credibility (the internal validity) of the results. This method can be used to approach the research question from different angles (Mason, 2002). In one way, it is a strong method; however, the whole process takes considerably much more time than a single method. The literature suggests that the rationale of multi-method research is underpinned by the principle of triangulation, which implies that researchers should seek to ensure that they are not over reliant on a single research method and should instead employ more than one measurement procedure when investigating a research problem (Bryman, 2008). More specifically, this study used multiple methods to cross-check the internal validity of the findings. The case studies exploited within this research enquiry was obtained from different data sources.

4.6 Summary

The chapter explained the research methodology that was adopted in this scientific enquiry. The main aim was to understand the organisational learning in construction in particular to process improvement perspectives. The research philosophy was placed on the hermeneutic learning spiral and case study research approach. The design science approach was adopted and multi techniques such as literature

review, informal discussions, document analysis, participant observations, questionnaire survey and focus group workshops were used to develop and validate the Procurer-Provider-User (PPU) framework. Further attention was given to justify the adopted research methods and reasons for rejecting other appropriate methods within this research enquiry. Validity and reliability tests were undertaken to check the confirmability, credibility and dependability/trustworthiness of the findings. Construct validity was tested through multiple sources of evidence (i.e. case study information, participant observations etc.) and the ‘triangulation’ method was used to

Chapter Five

5. DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF