EL ANGLI CI SMO DENTRO DE LA TEORÍ A DE LA TERMI NOLOGÍ A
2.3 El anglicismo desde la Teoría Comunicativa de la Terminología ( TCT)
Cain in Murray & Langford (2003) pointed to repeated warnings of cost performance and the consequences this has had on the competitiveness of other sectors. This long term lack of action proves the industry’s continuing unwillingness to accept the messages of the reports and radically change its structure and culture in order to improve its performance and to deliver better value to its end user clients. Banwell (1964) was one of the first observers who identified that post war procurement and the operation of assets in the UK were allowing insufficient time and focus on the importance of value. He further identified the enormous risks taken by those who continue to regard design and construction as two separate phases: "In no other industry is the design so far removed from production". Kiviniemi (2005) identified the main problems in the provision of assets as being in the design process, with there being "no connection between requirements and design documents", "the impact of personnel changes and project duration", "the impact of "middle‐men" in the process" and "the impact of direct and indirect requirements". The first and most critical part of the design process is briefing. This is described as "a process of refinement from a general expression of need to a particular solution", by Worthington & Blyth (2010). This separation of the design from the production process is also reflected in the design from operations and business needs and culture of the final asset end users. Worthington and Blyth (2010) identify the needs of understanding the users culture: "Issues such as culture and management strategies can radically affect the kind of building solution adopted". "The environment reflects the culture and can reinforce and communicate it through the way that space is designed, allocated, sub‐divided and managed". However, there is always a conflict between what staff want and what they need. This is further complicated by the difficulty in understanding these needs across a community or business that occupies the asset. Communities act in different ways depending upon the environment and perceptions. The common thread across all of these observations is the introduction of human occupation, interaction and their influence on the delivery and performance on the built asset.
The impact of a well performing asset can be measured in many ways but at the lowest level this is normally through fiscal variables. There is sparse literature at the micro individual
asset level of impact with most focus being at the wider macro impact of towns and conurbations prepared as part of the planning process. This is valid from a planning perspective but does make it difficult to optimise the performance of a single asset as its use and surroundings are constantly changing. The impact of an asset on its cost base varies depending upon its purpose, location, adjacencies and utilisation. If these impacts are analysed from the point of view of the figures from the UK Government Cabinet Office (UKCO 2015) and the Office of National Statistics, (ONS 2015) over an averaged asset base, a set of ratios can be developed as shown in Figure 2.1. The values shown in this analysis are generic across the entire public asset base and could be extracted to form either portfolio or geographic values. The value assigned to the design and build phase is 20%. Clearly for a complex asset such as a hospital this may be greater than for a highway, but the indicative relationship between the delivery phase and the operational phase (typically 80%) gives a valuable ratio when planning for whole life strategies and impacts.
Figure 2.1 ‐ Cumulative effect of assets from lifecycle to impact from a cost and outcome view. Adapted from
Wolstenholme A (2009) with generic relative values from Cabinet Office (2015) and ONS (2015)
All asset investment is an investment in a business plan for an organisation to deliver services to its customers. Most businesses explore every option as to how their services are best delivered and often a built asset may be the last resort. The focus on the cost and design of the asset is dependent upon how well it can deliver better functional services to the organisation. These functional services can represent around 300% of the total cost
base according to ONS (2015) and are represented by the functional activities that the asset provides. This by way of an example of a hospital may include: Car parks Waiting rooms Consultation rooms Operating theatres Recovery suites Wards Out‐patients Boiler houses, etc. The effective delivery of these functions depends upon the asset’s accurate brief, design and delivery being undertaken with due cognisance of the asset’s function and the dependency of each function on each other. These functions are a careful compromise between effective service, capital and operational cost and depend on both the client and the delivery team accurately articulating needs and requirements. An example of this would be the location of the operating theatres with respect to the building workflow (consuming operational labour costs) and the need to provide for highly serviced facilities which benefit from being close to boiler and plant locations (negating the need to move air, power and medical gases over long distances, thus incurring higher capital and operational cost).
These values are vital in the evaluation of the impact of assets on their surroundings and the wider social fabric or society, where social related impacts make up the vast majority of NHS and social care budgets. In Chapter three the potential relationships between the provision of poor built assets and these costs and impacts are explored. The functional costs are however in the scope of this Chapter. This has always been a challenge for designers as the ability for many clients to articulate their need is challenging and as Kiviniemi (2005) reminds us, people are also constantly changing. Until recently there have been only rudimentary ways of measuring asset performance and then normally through the use of "Building Management Systems" (BMS) which are often poorly specified and complex to operate. The current trend towards the internet of things (IoT) does promise the widespread possibilities of obtaining and using sensor technologies to track and measure any number of functional
outcomes. There is currently no agreed definition of the IoT but the IEEE in their positioning paper (IEEE 2015) observes the emerging characteristics and architecture of the emerging technologies. Most definitions they identify are summarised by the IoT‐A project (Bassi et al 2013). They describe IoT as an umbrella term for interconnected technologies, devices, objects and services". What is in no doubt is the potential for such technologies.
The effectiveness of a building also changes over time; this is described by Duffy & Henney (1989). Figure 2.2 taken from this work indicates how the impact of costs are hidden by the impact of time, including with operational costs. Further this was identified by the added complexity of this phenomena when projected over time by where Duffy & Henney (1989) identified for office products that if you add up what happens when capital is invested over a fifty‐year period; the structure expenditure is overwhelmed by the cumulative financial consequences of three generations of services installations and ten generations of space plan changes, making the architectural input almost nugatory".
Figure 2.2 – Impact of time on cost. The Changing City (Duffy & Henney, 1989)
During the delivery process of an asset, data is collected either in traditional analogue paper mode or is delivered as part of a digital project using tools to generate electronic data and geometry. The data collected in these engineering based disciplines is typically of a quantitative nature and this allows for objective analysis of values. The market is mid‐way
through a very slow process of migrating from analogue techniques pioneered in Victorian times, to a full digital economy. The key constituent data elements BS1192: Part 2 Ad2 (2015) gathered during this process comprise the following:
Data developed through the briefing process developed in cognisance of the perceptive performance of similar assets in the past (feedback) as part of the "Soft Landings" process
Data developed during the design and construction process, including through the use of tools such as Building Information Modelling" (BIM)
Data collected through the operational process, including through the use of tools such as "Asset and Facilities Management" (AIM), including maintenance schemes and data collection sensors
Procurement and commercial constraints including legal and regulatory
Current and emerging methods as to how asset data is being used to develop deeper understanding of how asset form dependencies and networks both from a physical and functional point of view, e.g. IoT devices, Building Management Systems or other telemetry sources The fiscal impact of each stage of a projects lifecycle and influence
2.3
Functional Process
2.3.1 OverviewThe process for delivering a built asset is fundamentally common across the built environment. There are taxonomy and detail process changes depending up on the sector or region and different engagement models can be applied to different risk profiles. The process flow indicated in Figure 2.3 shows the high level delivery process this involves.
Figure 2.3 ‐ IDEF0 Asset Delivery Process
The project delivery process for design and construction is defined by several documents including the various "Plans of Work" such as the (RIBA 2013) which "organises the process of briefing, designing, constructing, maintaining, operating and using building projects into a number of key stages and some generic cross sector British Standards as described below in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 ‐ BS and Other Level 2 Definition Documents
Document
(Ref)
Description
PAS1192:2:2013 This document describes the production of co‐ordinated design and construction
(CAPEX) information.
PAS1192:3:2014 This document describes the same data and process delivery and use definitions as
described above, but for the operational phase of the asset (OPEX
BS1192:4:2014 This document describes COBie‐UK‐2012 and its data definition and validation strategy.
PAS1192:5:2015 A document aimed at raising awareness and processes for securing data
BIM Protocol A suite of BIM commercial and contractual advice documents and standard forms
Government Soft
Landings (GSL)
A suite of documents describing Soft Landing policy and processes to ensure effective
involvement of users and operators in the development of scope, design and delivery.
Classification
System
A structured and standardised information classification system. (Uniclass 2015 for the
purposes of this research)
The Digital Plan of
Works (dPoW)
An industry standard method of describing geometric, requirements and data deliveries
at key stages of the project cycle to enable clear definition for contractual deliveries of
information
These documents detail the tasks and outputs required at each stage which may vary or overlap to suit specific project requirements". The RIBA Plan of Work itself is not a contractual document, but it directs readers to various tools and methods that can be selected. All of these selections have a material impact on the long term functional and operational performance of the asset. The definition of “process” offered by Kagioglou et al (2007) is useful as they point out the term can mean different things to different people depending upon sector, function and market. Talwar (1993) offers a definition as being “a sequence of predefined activities executed to achieve a pre‐selected type or range of outcomes”. Harrington (1991) says “any activity or group of activities that takes and input, adds value to it and provides an output to and internal or external customer”. The Process Protocol Level II project (Kagioglou et al 1998) aimed to define a second level of detail to the generic Process Protocol, which sets out to define an improved design and construction process.
There are several Plans of Work, including specific models defined by organisations internally, for specific bespoke scenarios. The problem with these bespoke solutions is the ambiguity and challenge of supply chain businesses in developing their own internal processes and learning to cope with these new stages and taxonomy’s all of which are a variation on a common theme. The diagram in Figure 2.4 demonstrates these common
20 40 60 80 1 2 4 X Data Drops Check against clients brief Cost planning Risk Management Check against project brief Cost planning Tender transparency Environmental Checks Package Scope check Cost Checks Carbon Checks O&M Data Handover Actual Costs Actual Programme Actual Carbon Performance N N N % B en e fi t N 3 Stage 0 Strategy Stage 1 Outcome Definition Stage 2 Feasibility Stage 3 Concept Design Stage 4 Detailed Design Stage 5 Delivery Stage 6 Project Close Stage 7 Benefits Realisation
Gate 0 Gate 1 Gate 2 Gate 3 Gate 4 Gate 5 Gate 6 Gate 7
A
Commence B OptionSelect AwardD C Pre-tender E Close The Project Management Framework (PFM) Lifecycle Gate 1 TfL (CGAP) OGC Gateways Develop Business Case Develop Delivery Strategy Gate 2 Undertake Competitive Procurement Gate 3 Design Build Test Gate 4 Establish Service Gate 5 Manage Asset Network Rail GRIP GRIP 1 Output Definition GRIP 2/3 Pre Feasibility Option Select GRIP 5 Detailed Design GRIP 4 Single Option Selection GRIP 6/7 Const, Test Comm & Handback GRIP 8 Project Closeout TfL
CIMM Pipeling Startup RequirementsDefine Procure /Design Develop (Build) Deliver /Close
TfL
Spearmint Startup Initiation Delivery Close
RIBA Work stage Gather Maintain Use Key Client Benefits Key Data Management Industry Delivery Stages
Does the brief meet my requirements in terms of function, cost and carbon? Has anything changed? What is being priced by the main contractor? Has anything changed? Has the design been over value engineered?
Did I get what I