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Many cases have studied the essential features and characteristics of shelters necessary for the comfort of refugees. The research covers some of these studies from different

places around the world. Additionally, these studies examine the operation of shelters in different climate conditions. There are many studies that have looked at temporary shelters where some of the shelters are provided through program management and others by design technology. In contrast, this study explores the feasibility of providing shelters in certain climate conditions with defined specifications to accommodate refugees as discussed in section (4.7.1).

Researchers including (Quarantelli, 1995; Johnson, Lizarralde, & Davidson, 2006; Arslan & Cosgun, 2008; Hadafi et al., 2010; Rawls & Turnquist, 2012) have discussed the challenges of refugee settlements. They explain that these challenges include the need for rapid establishment, low costs per unit, and being mindful of protecting the environment, and the following section discusses a number of practices in different locations.

In Turkey, the government has an up- bottom’ strategy and program planning. Turkey’s efforts did not meet the needs of refugees with regular prefabricated concrete slab units. In spite of the planning program for such units, the shortage was to cover social safety and stability by supporting gathering spaces for refugees in a camp. After building these units, the lead community encouraged users to personalize their units with a planted garden and by adding other elements inside and outside the shelters as shown in Figure (2.15).

Figure 2.15: Temporary Housing project (Source: Johnson, 2007)

Regarding (Bolin, 1990; Bolin & Stanford, 1991; Dandoulaki, 1992; Davis, 1978; Gilbert, 2001; Quarantelli, 1982; UNDRO, 1982, cited in Johnson, 2007) that units have

standard organization, and ignore users’ needs due to their rapid construction. This gap between providing units and establishing refugees’ needs has been evident after the modifications made by refugees has brought back memories of their original home. Another example in South Africa offered shelter in cooperation with the formal and informal sectors. The differences between these sectors are considered when the informal construction sector meets the competitive advantages and affordability of the formal sector. In Cape Town, a project offered shelters made from recycled materials and created by domestic skills as shown in Figure (2.16). The project aimed to combine standardization and local skills of variety and multiplicity by creating a cluster organization of units (Lizarralde et al., 2007).

Figure 2.16: Informal shelter in Cape Town (Source: www.google.jo)

In Japan, a Sectional Compact Emergency Shelter (SCES) was proposed, based on design technology and developed an emergency shelter for victims’ usage. It is portable and can be built in a short period of time (Tanaka et al., 2013). The shelter can be easily stored where there is electrical power and waste-heated water is powered by a container car with rechargeable batteries. In Iran, shelters made from sandbags filled with nearby material were provided with labour supplied by the local community (Hany Abulnour, 2014). A

drawback to this method is that it limits the shape of shelters and can be difficult to dismantle, as shown in Figure (2.17).

Figure 2.17: Sandbag shelter in Iran (Source: www.earthbagbuilding.com)

The following example illustrates a new technique of manufacturing - the mobile factory. The Q-Brixx block is produced by using and sorting debris through a process of separating, crushing, filtering, preparation, mixing, mould assembly and casting, as shown in Figure (2.18). Q-Bixx, is collected like Lego bricks without mortar or cement. Brick is prepared from rubble, as in Haiti where earthquake victims used bricks to rebuild houses. The construction was made very simple by preparing ground work and then standing bamboo poles in corners and openings. Bricks were then stacked by hand and roofs fixed to bricks by steel anchors and poles.

Figure 2.18: Q-Bixx shelter (Source: www.engineering.com www.engineering.com & themobilefactory.org)

Another material utilized in disaster situations is compacting concrete as a honeycomb concrete panel, which is light and as a result easy to build in a short time (Bradford & Sen, 2005). In terms of durability, as discussed in section (4.8), honeycomb is provided which is based on an origami design that is used in military shelters, as shown in Figure (2.19). The concept of this design are core sandwich panels with an outer and inner face which look heavy but in reality are light because of the hole inside which provides a high level of thermal insulation.

Figure 2.19: Example of honeycomb shelter (Source: throughthesandglass.typepad.com) Military shelters are more technically advanced in the materials used and the structure. A number of soft wall accordion shelters such as tent accordions have been developed, as shown in Figure (2.20). This type of shelter is a tent made from lightweight materials that can be folded and extended.

Figure 2.20: Military folded shelter (Source: www. inhabitat.com)

Closed prefabricated shelters are more durable, such as shipping containers, as shown in Figure (2.21), which uses the steel frame of a container to establish the shelter. Many studies have shown the impact of shipping containers that have been surplus at third world ports and which were out of service. This approach has involved decision-making by governments with responsible agencies who have worked in parallel to find quick solutions with consideration using free toxic painting materials (Corsellis et al., 2005).

Figure 2.21: Shipping containers for accommodating affected people (Source: www.gatewaycontainersales.com.au)

In the Philippines, there has been experience of building ‘core shelters’ as shown in Figure (2.22) following the aftermath of typhoons (Diacon, 1992). The Core Shelter

technical design refers to connecting roofs with walls to resist strong winds by supporting roof trusses. Schilderman (2004) shows how, after the Indian Ocean tsunami, India, Thailand, and Indonesia and the Habitat for Humanity (HFH) repaired homes in 2009- 2010 by providing a core house that used recycled materials and offered the potential for future extension. After completion, the project made modifications that illustrated the inadequacy of the innovative core house where HFH support the project as a process to recover holistic activities. Many other practices and case studies in Asia and Latin America show the reconstruction of houses or development of new sites.

Figure 2.22: Core shelter in the Philippines (Source: www.bshf.org)

Thus, several examples have been developed for accommodating affected people each year, which are discussed, however, most of these examples provide solutions for certain circumstances considering cost and time factors.