Comportamiento organizacional: Fred Luthans

The ongoing internationalization in the 20th century served as a framework of organizations with functions such as international communication and institutionalized organization such as the UN. Robbins in On the History of Rhetoric and Psychology mentioned that “the rise of modernity saw both the demise of rhetoric and the emergence of psychology as a natural science. [...] Psychology, in its modern incarnation, would deny having any relation whatsoever with rhetoric. Modern thought, that is, gave rise to the separation of the disciplines of psychology and rhetoric [...].”446 Prior to the 20th century distance communication was a matter of distributing written texts. New achievements in terms of media to process information were made in this century. Facsimile transfer developed in Europe in the 1890s and gave ground to the modern tools of simultaneous communication. Newspapers were very widely available in the 20th century. At the end of the 19th century a new media époque started in the Western world. Examples illustrating the practical side of mass communication in Europe in terms of their means are TV, telephone, radio, and other electronic mass media resulting in the use of computers. In the second half satellites were made for faster communication such as the television, internet, telephone, and e-mail. With the massive use of computers in the third quarter of the century a new kind of forwarding and saving data in an alternative format of delivery next to the use of traditional documentations in literary media began. The use of the internet as a mass communication tool was the latest possibility to send information to a mass audience. These possibilities also brought new forms of far distance global communication. Dahlberg in Radical Democracy and The Internet: Exploring Three Visions mentioned: “The possibility of the deliberative democratic public sphere of rational communication being fostered through the Internet has been of significant interest in Internet-democracy research for some time (e.g. Fang, 1995; Schneider, 1996). Agonistic and autonomist Marxist visions of radical democracy are also being drawn upon and developed in Internet-democracy literature. In this paper I undertake a critical theoretic and comparative exploration of these three radical democracy positions in relation to the Internet, questioning their normative strength and practical realizability.”447

Until the end of the 20th century an increasing number of technical discoveries from Europe and Norh America extended both the quantity and quality of media. So communication was basically arranged within the technical possibilities developed in this time replacing direct face-to-face communication. This communication in modern Europe depended on media techniques and combinations of multi media. Most effective for communication in the 20th century was the upcoming of new media techniques for the transfer of information. At the end of the 20th century we find an intensive development of media that enlargered the facilities of communication. Through the 19th and the 20th century also the theoretical examination of communicative relationships expanded in order to consider the factors, mechanisms, and methods of communication. The development of rhetorical communication in the 20th century stood under the influence of democratic political systems and the variety of mass media that reach far distances. The idea of plurality of societies and ethnical variety resulted in the model of globalisation that focuses on the idea of a worldwide commercial availability.448Computer networks made international communication worldwide possible with free opportunities to

446

Robbins, Brent Dean. On the History of Rhetoric and Psychology. Janushead. [1.7.2007]. <Http://www.janushead.org/3-1/brobbins.cfm>

447

Dahlberg, Lincoln. Radical Democracy and The Internet: Exploring Three Visions. Association of Internet Researchers. [1.7.2007].

<Http://conferences.aoir.org/viewabstract.php?id=441&cf=5> 448

Cf. Berg, Henk de. "A Systems Theoretical Perspective on Communication.” In: Poetics Today. Vol. 4. 16 (1995). Pp. 709-736.

publicize and distribute information. The international laws of human rights and treaties recognised the multicultural world.449 Oral tradition is the process whereby knowledge, often religious or spiritual, is passed from one generation to another generation. This process is most evident in oral or non-literate societies. The key medium used for this result is speech. The 20th century discovered the ‘collective memory’ of social groups, a term coined by Maurice Halbwachs for the memory of oral traditions. In relation to multimedia the meaning of memoria could be extended to cover the choice of techniques for storing and presentation of the product. The term ‘rhetorical ethnocentricism’ implies that each culture has preferred rhetorical styles and that this culture-specific style will be used when looking at all other cultures. Also media such as TV can be seen as part of memoria.450 With the invention of new technologies the conditions of communication changed. Telephone in the 19th century, radio, film, and TV in the 20th century and the invention of the internet became the new technologies that still were related to oral, but also written language delivered through technical means. On the other hand the change of conditions brought new cultural forms of entertainment like film and radio. So if we look at the conditions and types of media supported communication and traditional types we find these basic types:

Basic Types of Communication Media Types of Communication

Oral Communication Pure Types (e.g. Spoken language)

Literal Communication Mixed Types (e.g. TV)

Visual Communication Multiple Types (e.g. Internet)

Types of Communication. Traditional and Media Supported Types

In the 20th century documentations with publication in books and other print formats and verbal art as performance in the new media were supported by a first generation of new media such as radio, TV, and telephone. These media made information exchange in a one or two way-direction and –the most important feature– in a simultaneous way possible. The second generation of media in the late 20th century depending on the internet opened the possibility to multi-medial communication. At that time transportation and communication transcended limits of tiem and space with the invention of a worldwide instant connection. The use of languages for international exchange information became increasingly related to English. In other words: A language can be ‚exported’ from one country to another region by education like contemporary EFL (English As A Foreign Language).451 Global development of single languages used internationally follows principles that are not established within a single political state, but cross borders. In opposite cases a national language can be declared, a language can be banned. On the other hand, we have languages that spread across a continent

449

Cf. also: Schwanitz, Dietrich. “Systems Theory and the Difference Between Communication and Consciousness: An Introduction to a Problem and its Context.” In: MLN (German Issue). Vol. 111. N. 3 (1996). Pp. 488-505

Terranova, Tiziana. “Communication Neyond Meaning: On the Cultural Politics of Information.” In: Social Text. 80. Vol. 22. N. 3 (2004). Pp. 51-73

Arens, Katherine. “When Comparative Literature Becomes Cultural Studies: Teaching Cultures Through Genre.” In: The Comparatist. Vol. 29 (2005). Pp. 123-147

450

Cf. for research in orality: Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. New York: Routledge 1982. Pp. 45-50.

Cf. Lyotard, Jean-Francois. The Post-Modern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Transl. by Geoff Bennington and Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 1984. Pp. 70-78.

451

Garcia, D. Linda. “Global Communications: Opportunities for Trade and Aid.” In: SAIS Review. Vol. 16. Number 1 (1996). Pp.35-66

Dor, Danny. “From Englishization to Imposed Multilingualism: Globalization, the Internet, and the Political Economy of the Linguistic Code.” In: Public Culture. Vol. 16. Number 1 (2004). Pp.97-118

due to the travel of the people, e.g. the speakers of the Turk language family. Another mode of moving language can be classified as the languages that were transferred through culture and religion.

In North European countries a tradition of local orality existed in spoken words and their later on practiced literal recording.452 Northern European countries like Denmark, Sweden, and Norway have also a rhetorical tradition coming from ancient roots.453 The Icelanders of the 20th century still kept cultural achievements of the European Middle Ages and they retained much of their original culture during this long period. The Icelanders have an oral poetry called Skaldic poetry named after the local poets and recitors of the poems called Skalds,. The prose histories of Iceland are called sagas. Some sagas tell histories of the settlement of Iceland and Greenland, but the saga-tellers focused on individuals. In sagas such as

Laxdaelasaga and Njal's Saga the history of Iceland is described in the dramas of individual passions of heroes.454 The Icelandic language with little changes between 800 and the 21st century is almost identical to the Old Norse, the ancestor of modern Scandinavian languages. Icelandic has the term mál for communication. Jensen mentioned that “in the Nordic countries, which are so similar and yet so different, it seems almost inevitable that we should consider comparative studies of media history – the question is how, and at what level of ambition.”455 We here start with a little comparative study of the terminology of communication. There are the two main language families in Europe Indo-European and Finno-Ugric. Uralic is a linguistic stock, which includes Finnic, Ugrian, and Samoyedic langauges. The Altaic branch includes Mongolian, Turkish, Tungusic, and Korean. Altaic languages are a family of languages spoken in a vast area of Eurasia extending from Turkey in the west to the Sea of Okhotsk in the east. The Hungarians, Finns, and Estonians possess a developed literary languages with long traditions.456 The so-called Old Permic written language in Komi existed from the 14th to the 16th centuries.457 The modern Komi, Mari, Mordovian, and Udmurt literary languages were formed during the first decades of the 20th century.458 The Khanty and Mansi were created in the 1930s as written languages. An example for Russian influence to Northern European cultures is Finland. Retoriikka is the expression for rhetoric in Finland. Oral culture in Finland is represented in the national epic

Kalevala. Finland was colonised first by Sweden and later by Russia. The origins of Finnish are in west-central Siberia. The Finns arrived in their present territory thousands of years ago. With the arrival of other groups the Lapps moved to the more remote northern regions. The Finns and the Ugrians were a united people until the arrival of the Slavs from the west and

452

Cf. Kajanto, Ilro. Humanism in a Christian Society II. Classical Moral Philosophy and Oratory in Finland 1640-1713. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia 1990. Pp. 45ff.

453

Cf. Trenter, Cecilia. Granskningens Retorik och Historisk Vetenskap. Kognitiv Identitet i Recensioner i Dansk Historisk Tidsskrift, Norsk Historisk Tidsskrift och Svensk Historisk Tidsskrift 1965-1990. Uppsala: Uppsala University Library 1999. Pp. 12-19.

Hansen, Helge. Retorik. Tteori og Praksis. Kopenhavn: Munskgaard 1977. Johannesson, Kurt. Svensk Retorik. Stockholm: Norstedt 1983. Pp. 19-16. 454

Hooker, Richard. The Middle Ages. The Norse. Washington State University. [2.2.2007]. <Http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ma/norse.htm>

455

Jensen, Klaus Bruhn. “From Media History to Communication History. Three Comparative Perspectives on the Study of Culture”. In: Plenum III. Mediehistorie. Nordicom. [1.7.2007].

<Http://www.nordicom.gu.se/common/publ_pdf/20_095-100.pdf> 456

Piazza, Alberto; Sforza, Luigi Cavalli. Diffusion of Genes and Languages in Human Evolution. University Plymouth. [2.2.2007].

<Http://www.tech.plym.ac.uk/socce/evolang6/piazza_cavalli-sforza.doc> 457

Speakers of Uralic and Altaic, and Old World Racial Origins. Society for Nordish Physical Anthropology. [2.2.2007].

<Http://www.snpa.nordish.net/chapter-VII3.htm> 458

Anttikoski, Esa. Minority Languages of Russia on the Net. A List of Resources. [2.2.2007]. <Http://www.peoples.org.ru/eng_finnougr.html>

Huns and Avars from the east forced them to migrate. Finnish and Lappish are both Finno- Ugric languages and parts of the Uralic family. Finland was association with the Kingdom of Sweden since 1154. In 1809 Finland was conquered by Russia and remained connected with the Russian Empire until the end of 1917. In the middle of the 18th century two significant figures in classical philology at the Academia Aboensis were the professor of eloquence Henrik Hassel (1700-1776) and the professor of sacred languages and theology Carl Abraham Clewberg (1712-1765).459

Even-Zohar mentioned in The Role of Literature in the Making of the Nations of Europe: A Socio-Semiotic Study that “the highly-established nature of the ‘European model’ is evidenced by its repeated and successful use in one culture after another in Europe itself. But it is also corroborated by cultures which did not establish themselves on European soil.”460 We can see the tradition of the terminology of communication within this territory as an example for the process of repetition. In Finnish folk tradition the so-called ´Finnish silence´ is a virtue as a cultural norm stating that Finns appreciate silence. The Finnish proverb Paljon mahtuu puheita maailmaan, tekoja sopii aina odottaa means in translation Many speeches can be heard troughout the world, but one always has to wait for deeds. We find in the Finnish language both the term derived from Latin, kommunikaatio, next to terms that are part of the Nordish family trees such as viestintä, tiedonvälitys, and tiedotus.461 The Finnish language (Suomi) is spoken by 5.2 Million people. Finland´s main languages are Finnish and Swedish next to a small Sami-speaking and Russian-speaking minorities. The first inhabitants of Finland were the Sami (Lapp) people. When Finnish speakers migrated to Finland in the first millennium B.C.E., the Sami were forced to move northward to the arctic regions.462 Finland has a collectivist culture. Finnish has –next to the loanword kommunikaatio,- the communication terms kieli, ilmoitus, kanssakäyminen, kirjelmä, kulkuyhteys, liikenneyhteys,

tiedoksianto, tiedonanto, tiedote, viestintä, viestitys, and yhteys. Mass communications in Finland consists of electronic and printed media. The Finnish Broadcasting Company (YLE) takes care of mass communication on radio and TV with public funding; it is a public limited company. Commercial radio and television companies require a permit granted by the Government. The press in Finland is also privately owned.463 The Council for Mass Media in Finland determines whether the media follows good journalistic practices.464

Sonesson asking the question Where is the Zero-Degree in Visual Semiotics? placed this degree in the real world: “Where, then, should we localise the zero-degree of visual rhetoric, that fixed point starting out from which rhetoric can move the world? Following our present proposals, we will in fact end up with several classes of rhetoric – which are perhaps not more or less rhetorical, but rather rhetorical in different circumstances. To being with, all pictures could be seen as rhetorical – if the zero-degree is the world as we experience it, the perceptual

459

Merisalo, Outi. The Querelle des Anciens et des Modernes at the Academia Aboensis in the Eighteenth Century. University Munich. [2.2.2007].

<Http://www.phil-hum-ren.uni-muenchen.de/GermLat/Acta/Merisalo.htm> 460

Even-Zohar, Itamar. The Role of Literature in the Making of the Nationsof Europe: A Socio-Semiotic Study. University of Toronto. [1.7.2007].

<Http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/french/as-sa/ASSA-No1/Vol1.No1.EvenZohar.pdf.> 461

Cf. translation made by: Eurodicautom. Foreign Word. [2.2.2007]. <Http://www.foreignword.com>

462

Cf.: Ethnologue Language Family Index. In: Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Fifteenth Edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online Version. [6.6.2007].

<Http://www.ethnologue.com/> 463

Cf. Ministry of Finance. Suomı.fi.[2.2.2007].

<Http://www.suomi.fi/suomifi/english/subjects/culture_and_communications/media/index.html> 464

Council for Mass Media in Finland. [2.2.2007]. <Http://www.jsn.fi/english/index.html>

Lifeworld. Indeed, all pictures are transformations of the scene of the perceptual world, according to the specific sign category which we call a picture.” 465 In Sweden the subject

retoric exists at universities. Kurt Johannesen wrote a Svensk Retorik Från Stockholms Blodbad Till Almedalen Sthlm published in Norstedt in 1983. Sweden´s races are Lapp (Sami) and foreign-born or first-generation immigrants (Finns, Yugoslavs, Danes, Norwegians, Greeks, and Turks. Swedish uses the Germanic word språk for linguistic communication. In Swedish for communication the terms kommunikation, meddelande, and skrivelse are used. The earliest Swedish literature is found in the thousands of rune stones in the country written in the sixteen-symbol Swedish runic alphabet. In Sweden the terms retoriikan (rhetoric) and

retorisen kommunikaation (rhetorical communication) are used. Norway´s races consists of Germanic (Nordic, Alpine, Baltic) and Lapps (Sami). In Norwegian communication is

kommunikasjons, retorikk is rhetoric, and tale speech. Georg Johannesen wrote a Rhetorica Norvegica published in Oslo in 1987. Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum of the early 13th century represents Danish literature in Latin. The earliest preserved texts from Denmark are runic inscriptions on memorial stones and other objects. The first printed book in Danish dates from 1482. The first complete translation of the Bible in Danish was published in 1550. Danish was once widely spoken in the northeast countries of England. Soeren Kierkegaard was a writer in the Danish ‘golden age’ of intellectual activity crossing the boundaries of philosophy, theology, psychology, literary criticism, spiritual literature and fiction. Kierkegaard is known as the ´father of existentialism´. Kierkegaard often wrote under

pseudonym. Fear and Trembling contains A Panegyric Upon Abraham in form of a sermon.

Kierkegaard used irony, parody, and satire.466 Communication in Danish is kommunikation. A piece of information given is in Danish meddelelse and rapport. In Denmark retorica was definied by Maurice Van Elburg as the study of ‘effective speaking and writing’ (effectief spreken en schrijven) and ‘art of persuasion’ (Kunst van overtuigen):

Retorica is de studie gewijd aan effectief spreken en schrijven. En de kunst van overtuigen. En nog veel meer.467

When we look at the spreading of rhetoric, we see that this Greek invention was used as a linguistic concept in other Indo-Germanic languages. In the late 20th century in most of the European countries departments of rhetoric or a specialized person or academic institution existed. In Spain a Departamento de Filología Española y Latina for the tradition and practical use of rhetoric exists. Rhetoric (retórica) und eloquence (elocuencia) are terms used in Spain. In the Spanish culture we find the following definition given by Jose Jiminez Oliva:

La retorica fue objeto de estudio y medio de formacion en todo el occidente, formando parte de los estudios del famoso Trivium.468

465

Sonesson, Göran. Approches to the Lifeworld Core of Pictorial Rhetoric. Lund University. [1.7.2007]. <Http://www.arthist.lu.se/kultsem/sonesson/RhetoricalApproach2.html>

466

Kierkegaard, Søren. The Concept of Irony. With Constant Reference to Socrates. Transl. from Danish with an Introduction and Notes by Lee M. Capel. London: Collins 1966. Pp. 67-73.

Jens, Walter. Dichtung und Religion. Pascal, Gryphius, Lessing, Hölderlin, Novalis, Kierkegaard, Dostojewski,