CONCLUSIONES Y REFLEXIONES FINALES

Although relationship, economic, and lifestyle factors were the key reasons given by New Zealanders for their decision to move to Australia, their actual migration was made possible by enabling factors. Stephen Castles states that international migration is an aspect of globalisation (characterised by cross border flows of information, people, trade, and media) and is enabled by modern information and communications technology.69 Jose Moya in his book Cousins and Strangers, argues that it is possible to find many historical examples of nations where the existence of ‗push‘ or ‗pull‘ economic or social factors never led to migration. Immigrants tend to stress their personal agency but migration also needs to be understood in the context of wider trends which enable large people movements.70 In the case of New Zealand migration to Australia, modern globalisation made communication and travel between the two nations increasingly affordable and accessible. As pointed out in Chapter Two, the lack of bureaucratic barriers mean that trans-Tasman migration is uncomplicated. Moreover, the large numbers of Kiwis in Australia mean that most potential migrants had networks of possible contacts whom could ease the migration process.

The New Zealand–Australia migration corridor is distinguished by several factors which enable migration. Although Australia is more than 2000km from New Zealand, it is still a cheaper and closer destination than other destinations such as Asia, Europe, or America. For New Zealanders wanting to travel, migrate, or holiday, Australia was a convenient

destination. Australia is also culturally similar to New Zealand which made it a less daunting move. In addition, New Zealanders and Australians enjoyed mutual free entry to each others‘ countries through the Trans Tasman Travel Arrangement (TTTA). Up until 1981 New

Zealanders did not need passports to enter Australia. New Zealanders have never needed to apply for work visas for Australia and were eligible for Australian social security until

69 _{Stephen Castles, ―International Migration at the Beginning of the Twenty-First Century: Global Trends and}

Issues,‖ UNESCO: Global Trends and Issues (2001),

http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/bpl_images/journal_samples/issj0020-8701~52~165~258/258.pdf (accessed 25 January 2011)

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2001.71 New Zealanders‘ qualifications are recognized in Australia and they pay domestic fees in educational institutes (although the fees must be paid up-front). All these factors make migration seamless. This is why many travel-oriented migrants stopped off first in Australia on their OE. Once in Australia, Kiwis were able to turn their holiday into a permanent migration without doing any paperwork. Some Kiwis mentioned that they chose Australia over other destinations because of these enabling factors; doubtless many more were influenced by these conditions even if they did not identify them as a key reason for their migration.

Another enabling factor for migration to Australia was that many New Zealanders‘ held very positive perceptions of Australia due to transnational flows of information and people. A few

migrants had read books on Australia or seen

programmes on television. Jonathan Archer tuned into Australian radio stations as a 10 year old.72 Christine Reis‘s perception of Australia came from magazines: ‗I do remember reading the Australian glossy

magazines, e.g. Cleo, Cosmopolitan, Dolly, thinking ―what a great place Australia looks. Suntanned bodies, colourful happy people‖‘.73 Julie Podstolski gleaned her impressions of Australia from various places:

Well I think I still had this vision in my head of these glossy pamphlets I‘d seen. I remember also when I was still at primary school doing a project on Australia. And Australia always seemed like the golden land to me. And thoughts of Sydney, I remember that there were always ads on TV for you know, holidaying in Australia. So everything one ever saw was glossy. Like even the big face of Luna Park, you

know things like that.74

For many migrants, prior holidays and visits to kin in Australia formed the basis of their knowledge. In

71

John Wood, ―The Movement of People,‖ in New Zealand and Australia: Where Are We Going?: Papers Presented at the Seminar Arranged by the New Zealand Institute of International Affairs at Victoria University, Wellington on 4 July 2001, ed. Bruce Brown and New Zealand Institute of International Affairs. (Wellington: New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 2001), 83.

72 _{Archer, interview.} 73

Christine Reis, written narrative sent to author, 9 November 2009.

74 _{Podstolski and Clements, interview.}

Figure 12. 1960s Ansett tourism poster. The text continues “We know a special place for you. This girl at Manly is typical of the thousands of gorgeous honey-brown Venuses in mini-bikinis who frolic in the surf on Sydney's northern and southern beaches during the long golden days of summer.” Published by the Dept of Tourism, Sydney. Photograph by Bruce Hamilton. Printed by Offset Alpine Printing Pty Ltd, Sydney.

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1965 both Qantas and Air New Zealand launched trans-Tasman jet flights. Australia and New Zealand were each other‘s biggest tourist market and the two nations‘ tourist bureaux

collaborated to promote trans-Tasman travel. The 1960s and 70s saw a substantial increase in short-term trips across the Tasman for tourism, holidays, business, and family reunions.75 When people recalled these first holidays they focused on good weather and tourist activities. Daphne Park had spent a summer in Melbourne before she moved there to live with her husband. She reflected: ‗I think being in holiday mode and not committed to being here, there‘s sort of a dream that it‘s a great place and it‘s exciting and vibrant, and a lot of different cultures, different foods, and restaurants. And it‘s warmer and it felt good.‘76 In reality Daphne found that living in Melbourne was different to, and harder than, her holiday. Although their holiday experiences were not a realistic sample of everyday life in Australia, positive memories helped convince New Zealanders to return to Australia to live.

The last major enabling factor, as indicated in the section on relationships, was the presence of New Zealand contacts in Australia. Although migratory movements are often initiated by external factors, once a pattern is established migrants usually follow familiar routes, helped along by friends and family already in the migration destination. Networks of friends and family in Australia not only encouraged Kiwis to move; they also provided information, emotional support, and practical aid. For example, Frank mentions how his wife‘s cousins organised a flat and a job for them. Although I have already detailed these networks under the relationships subheading, trans-Tasman connections also qualify as an enabling factor.

Indeed, this is why relationships are such a vital migration factor. Economic and lifestyle indicators are abstract conditions which exist irrespective of migrants‘ personal decisions. By contrast, Kiwi migrants‘ kin in Australia often actively influenced the decision to migrate by persuasively describing the advantages of life in Australia and providing pragmatic advice and support.

Conclusions

Although economic and lifestyle aspirations were important factors causing migration, personal relationships were the most common and powerful factor in motivating migrants to move. Narrators generally spoke or wrote about their relationship motives more frequently,

75

Mein Smith, Hempenstall, and Goldfinch, Remaking the Tasman World, 67.

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and in more detail than other factors. Both positive and negative relationships prompted emotions which made New Zealanders receptive to migration. In addition, relationship considerations were implicated in other migration motivations. For example, finances are intimately connected to relationships. The loss of a job or financial instability puts pressure on families. So, when Frank moved to Australia to find work, it was for his family just as much as himself. Likewise Henry DeSilva pursued a career as a headmaster in Australia in order that he could have a settled family life in his future. Relationships also acted as an enabling factor. Australian contacts‘ encouragement and practical help made Kiwis more likely to move to Australia.

Certain types of motivations were more instrumental than others in encouraging migration. Following loved ones to Australia or fleeing toxic relationships were both powerful motives. By contrast, the support of networks of friends and family already living in Australia was generally a more low-key, enabling factor. When Australian contacts suggested moving across the Tasman this often tapped into migrants‘ deeper dissatisfactions with New Zealand society or lifestyle aspirations. Similarly, some economic factors were very powerful. The attraction of a specific job or educational opportunity often caused otherwise contented New Zealanders to migrate to Australia. More general feelings of ‗not getting ahead‘ might just add weight to other stronger motives for departure. Many young migrants, while not purposely intending to settle in Australia were driven out of New Zealand by their wanderlust. Australia‘s attractive reputation, proximity, and ease of entry all supported migration but were not usually the primary catalyst for leaving.

It is important to note that New Zealand migration to Australia was not always the result of a carefully planned decision. A majority of young single migrants never intended to move permanently to Australia. Young Kiwi migrants were prone to make the decision to leave New Zealand impulsively. Their lack of ties and responsibilities meant they could depart almost instantly. Many were impelled by dreams of travel and adventure and expected to later return to New Zealand. Indeed, some of my sample did return to New Zealand after a few years away. It was only subsequent events which led these Kiwi visitors to become permanent migrants in Australia.

Although this chapter organized New Zealander‘s migrants‘ motives thematically, it needs to be stressed that the Kiwis in my sample nearly always migrated for more than one reason. No

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single factor accounts for the complexity of migrants‘ decision-making. As Frank‘s story demonstrates, a whole range of factors usually combined to influence New Zealanders to move to Australia. Some of these reasons might go back years. For example, when Jonathan Archer tuned into Australian radio stations as a 10 year old this planted inside him a positive attitude towards Australia. There was usually a tipping point which precipitated the ultimate decision. For Shane Te Aho it was the miserable Gisborne winter, whereas for Rosa Tanga it was her cheating boyfriend. Every migrant had a slightly different combination of reasons to leave New Zealand. Kiwis were not mindlessly participating in a ‗migration trend‘ but were responding to their own particular situation. While the wider structural context did affect when, why, how, and where they moved, Kiwis‘ migrations were also a response to their personal dreams, problems, stresses, and relationships.