DEL CONTRATO DE TRANSACCIÓN

Both countries, then, seem to be examples of "classical republics" and it is of interest to look for other examples to see how far Bewick used "neo-Machiavellian" categories in his social and political analysis. Using this paradigm focus, it is clear that virtue is a part of his

vocabulary. Since they have "opulence and independence", landed gentlemen

or freeholders ought to be "the patrons of every virtue in the people". Their wealth needed to be put to social use and not wasted in luxury.

Individual and social virtue were connected. It was wrong that "a great

proportion of mankind '"lives to eat - not eat to live"'. In the Memoir,

Bewick, Memoir, 200-1. 97.

Bewick continually praises a simple diet. He gives a very detailed account of the spartan life he led which, he says, "hardened the constitution". What would harden the bodily constitution would also have a beneficial effect on the political, social and moral constitution. Currently, "pampering and spoiling the appetites of children" led to a loss of physical and moral purity such that, especially among girls, "notions of

fashion and gentility ... have taken deep root". Treated "like hot-house plants" girls have become "the nerveless outcasts of nature" and "unfit

to become the mothers of Englishmen” . Routs, balls and "midnight

assemblies" should be replaced by the pursuits of horticulture, to allow them "to make use of their limbs". They needed "a plain diet, temperance and exercise". There is nothing eccentric in these anti-luxury sentiments of Bewick; they are found in Major Cartwright, in Wooler's Black Dwarf, and in a host of other Radical writers and publications. Radicalism was not

98

merely a politics: it was a way of life. Another long passage worth quoting at length shows the extent to which thinking was structured by the commonplace assumptions of 'classical' language. "Well constituted govern­ ments", Bewick writes,

if occasionally revised, and as often as necessary scrupulously amended, may be rendered as

permanent as time. If wisely and virtuously administered they would be indestructible and incalculably contribute by their vigour to the mental and moral aggrandisement of man. It is a truth confirmed by universal history that the happiness or misery of a people entirely depend upon the principles of their government and the conduct of their rulers. When just and honourable intentions exist there is nothing to dread: but when only a semblance of these is put on ... Thence follows the degradation of man, and the consequent decay of states and nations.

99

If "governments ... are lost in considerations about their own private selfish concerns", or are blinded by false ambition", Bewick continues, then "the bulk of the people must be enlightened and amended". This basically classical language or analysis takes on a "neo-Harringtonian" complexion when it is applied to the English House of Commons, to

corruption and "the compact confederacy of undeserving placemen and pensioners". Besides key words such as "virtue", "ambition", "decay" and

98.

Bewick, Memoir, 112, 209-11, 211. 99.

so on, t h e r e a r e o t h e r words and i d e a s which n e e d e q u a l e m p h a s i s . In t h e i d e a o f c o n s t i t u t i o n o r p o l i t y t h a t i s " p e r m a n e n t i n t i m e " , once a g a i n a m i l l e n a r i a n moment i s e x p r e s s e d a l o n g w i t h a M a c h i a v e l l i a n o ne . In t h e i d e a t h a t p o l i t i c s d e t e r m i n e s t h e g e n e r a l m e n t a l and m a t e r i a l s t a t e o f t h e p e o p l e o r n a t i o n an e s s e n t i a l l y p r e - i n d u s t r i a l form o f i d e o l o g y i s i n t i m a t e d . In t h e i d e a t h a t t h e moral h e a l t h o f t h e r u l e r s a c t s as t h e p r i m a r y f a c t o r i n h i s t o r i c a l c a u s a t i o n , a m y t h i c o - r e l i g i o u s mode o f t h o u g h t i s b e i n g e x p r e s s e d . The q u e s t i o n o f t h e d i s c r e t e n e s s o f p a r a d i g m s a r i s e s w i t h Bewick a s w i t h o t h e r R a d i c a l w r i t e r s . The e n l i g h t e n m e n t o f t h e p e o p l e i s a q u e s t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l knowledge and p o l i t i c a l s a i n t l i n e s s , o f t h e p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f " R e l i g i o n and P o l i t i c s " . The "wages o f c o r r u p t i o n " a r e n o t m e r e l y p o l i t i c a l s i n c e p l a c e m e n and p e n s i o n e r s have " s i n n e d t h e m s e l v e s o u t o f a l l shame". P u r i t y and p o l l u t i o n a r e a t i s s u e as w e l l a s a l a c k o f p o l i t i c a l and p u b l i c d u t y . Be fo r e g o i n g t o t o c o n s i d e r t h i s , i t i s a s w e l l t o remember t h a t n o t o n l y does Pocock g i v e p r i m a c y t o p o l i t i c s o v e r r e l i g i o n i n t h e s t r u c t u r i n g o f much o f 1 8t h c e n t u r y t h o u g h t , he a l s o s e e s t h e i d e a o f i n d e p e n d e n c e as an i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f M a c h i a v e l l i ' s E n g l i s h f a c e . B e w i c k ' s u s e o f t h e i d e a o f i n d e p e n d e n c e shows i t was an a c c e p t a b l e n o t i o n o n l y b e c a u s e i t f i t t e d w i t h a c e r t a i n s o c i a l r e a l i t y and b e c a u s e t h i s r e a l i t y e x i s t e d o r h ad e x i s t e d ; i n d e p e n d e n c e c a r r i e d w i t h i t t h e n o t i o n o f f r ee do m from c l a s s c o n t r o l and p a t e r n a l i s m and d e f e r e n c e . I n d e p e n d e n c e was c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e e n c l o s u r e s and t h e us e and o w n e r s h i p o f l a n d .

The " f e l l " o r common c l o s e t o B e w i c k ' s home c o n t a i n i n g n e a r l y two t h o u s a n d a c r e s was d i v i d e d up i n 1812. "By t h i s d i v i s i o n t h e p o o r man was

r o o t e d o u t and v a r i o u s me chan ic s o f t h e v i l l a g e s d e p r i v e d o f a l l b e n e f i t o f i t " . Like t h e a n c i e n t c o n s t i t u t i o n i t had b e e n " t h e p o o r m a n ' s h e r i t a g e f o r ages p a s t " , and h ad now been l o s t . F o r m e r l y , " h e k e p t a few s h e e p , o r a Kyloe cow, p e r h a p s a f l o c k o f g e e s e , and m o s t l y a s t o c k o f b e e h i v e s " . I t was a l s o a p l a c e o f " w i l d b e a u t i f u l s c e n e r y " where t h e movements o f n a t u r e c o u l d be o b s e r v e d . Now, a l l was " s w e p t away". Bei ng a s o u r c e o f p r o d u c t i o n , t h e commons was a l s o a s o u r c e o f i n d e p e n d e n c e s i n c e ,

Here and t h e r e on t h i s common were t o be s e e n a c o t t a g e , o r r a t h e r h o v e l , o f some l a b o u r i n g man, b u i l t a t h i s own e x p e n s e , and m o s t l y w i t h h i s own h a n d s ; and t o t h i s he a l w a y s ad de d a

1 0 0 .

g a r t h and a g a r d e n , upon which g r e a t p a i n s and l a b o u r were b e s to w ed t o make b o t h p r o d u c t i v e . . . These v a r i o u s c o n c e r n s e x c i t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n and i n d u s t r y o f t h e h a r d y o c c u p a n t s which e n a b l e d them t o p r o s p e r and made them d e s p i s e e v e r b e i n g numbered w i t h t h e p a r i s h p o o r . Thes e men . . . mi ght t r u l y be c a l l e d 'A b o l d p e a s a n t r y , t h e i r c o u n t r y ' s p r i d e ' and t o t h i s day I t h i n k I s ee t h e i r b r o a d s h o u l d e r s and t h e i r h a r d y s u n - b u r n t l o o k s , which a l t o g e t h e r b e s p o k e t h e v i g o u r o f t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n s . . . Thes e c o t t a g e r s . . . were o f an h o n e s t and i n d e p e n d e n t c h a r a c t e r , w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e t h e y h e l d t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g g e n t r y i n g r e a t e s t i m a t i o n and t h e s e i n t u r n d i d n o t o v e r l o o k them. 101 Here i s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e m e n t a l i t y George E l i o t p a i n t e d i n h e r :k

c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n o f Adam Bede. I n d ep e n d e n c e and d e f e r e n c e seem t o go t o g e t h e r ; d e f e r e n c e i s a m a t t e r o f e xc ha n g e . I t i s c o n d i t i o n a l upon t h e g e n t r y ' s d i s c h a r g e o f i t s p u b l i c d u t y . I n d e p e n d e n c e o f mind, b a s e d upon economic i n d e p e n d e n c e a l s o s u g g e s t e d l i m i t s t o s o c i a l c o n t r o l and

domi nance. T h i s i n d e p e n d e n c e would no d o u b t be r e i n f o r c e d by t h e v a l u e s t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h t h e c o t t a g e r s ' r e a d i n g m a t e r i a l : " t h e B i b l e , l o c a l