All five vowels in Nakkara are represented orthographically by standard type-set symbols, as in the table following:
FRONT BACK HIGH LOW i u e o a
M ORPHOLOGICAL PRELIMINARIES 3.0. Pream ble
The principal aim of the morphology section of the grammar (chapters 3 to 6 inclusive) is to describe and explain the morphological processes at work in Nakkara. Because of the polysynthetic nature of the language and the extensive pronominal cross-referencing, the 'internal organisation and structure of words' (see Anderson (1982)) represents a large part of this grammar. Certainly, some word-forms in the language are morphologically unitary, but many consist of strings of two or more morphemes. Prefixation and suffixation are the main morphological processes operating in Nakkara. The majority of affixes are pronominal in form and represent inflectional categories.
Pronominal affixes are characteristic of Nakkara and other prefixing non-Pama Nyungan languages. Principal grammatical functions are not coded as nominal case affixes, as we find in the bulk of Australian languages, but as bound pronominal affixes (usually prefixes) onto a verbal predicate referred to as the verb-complex. Many nominals (a word class including nouns, adjectives, pronouns and demonstratives) can also be used predicatively and then occur with pronominal affixes. There are a handful of non-pronominal affixes, some of which are inflectional and some derivational. They never code grammatical functions, but add semantic specification, usually locational (see 4.7.).
Verbs and many nominals can be fairly well characterised in purely morphological terms. Particles, interjections and spatio-temporal qualifiers are usually morphologically unitary. Consequently, these are best described separately, according to word class, as in Chapter 7 .
A general classification of word types will be essential for subsequent discussion of morphological processes. Sections 3.1 to 3.6 provide these details. Characterisation of each word class entails some discussion of functional as well as formal (internal morphological) properties. Functional properties provide information about clausal relations and how each class of word interacts with the others. A more detailed account of the function of words within larger constructs is given in Chapter 8, Clause Structure.
Nominal and verbal morphology are discussed separately. Chapter 4 covers ’Nominal Morphology'; Verbal Morphology, which is quite complex is divided into Chapter 5 'Verb Morphology' and Chapter 6 'Verb-Stem Morphology'. Because pronominal affixation is the principal morphological process operating in Nakkara, independent pronoun morphology is discussed (in 4.1. to 4.3.) prior to other aspects of nominal morphology. 3.1. Word Classes
There are five word classes in Nakkara. Verbs and nominals constitute the two major, open classes of words. Spatio-temporal qualifiers, particles and interjections are smaller closed sets. These word-classes have the following functional properties:
Verbs refer to actions, events, activities and some states and function as the nucleus of a verbal predicate. A verb-root occurs as the nucleus of a verb-complex. (See 5.1. to 5.1.3. for details). Because major grammatical relations are coded within the verb-complex, it can occur in isolation as a sentential unit. In other circumstances the verb-complex is supported by a range of independent word-forms.
Nominals refer to persons, places and things and to attributes of these referents. Many nominal forms can occur as predicate nuclei; and generally, nominals can function as noun phrase heads, modifiers or predicates. Within a given clause, nominals can function as core, outer-core or peripheral elements. The terms 'core' and 'peripheral' are used in the sense of Dixon (1980:294): 'Those NPs that must be included in a sentence if it is to have a complete sense are said to be in core function - these are intransitive subject, transitive subject and transitive object'. The term 'outer-core' is borrowed from Morphy (1983:81). In Nakkara outer-core functions include beneficiary, purposive, associative, and source/goal orientation (see 3.3.4.3. below). Peripheral NPs are circumstantial elements and provide the spatio-temporal setting for a sentence.
Spatio-temporal qualifiers provide the locational and temporal setting for a given clause. As circumstantial elements they function peripherally as clause modifiers.
Particles: I distinguish two types of particles in Nakkara: Clause-Modifying particles and Adjuncts. The former type modify and coordinate clauses, and as such are peripheral
clausal elements. Adjuncts (after Matthews (1981:136-141) modify verbal predicates and function as outer-core elements of the clause.
Interjections include various exclamations and assertions used in discourse. As in other languages, the function of interjections in Nakkara is to provide an abbreviated expression of an emotion, or other kind of reaction, using a single word to convey the desired meaning.
3.2. Verbs
In Nakkara a verb lexeme (after Matthews (1974:22)) is equivalent to the verb root or citation form. A verb lexeme does not usually occur in isolation, but as the nucleus of the verb-complex (VC). A VC consists minimally of the following components:
PP - NUCLEUS - T
The pronominal prefix (PP) cross-references the core NP/s of the clause. The nucleus functions like a verb-root or stem and codes the action or state. The tense (T) gives a time perspective to the action. Consider as an example the following verb-complex, where marrbba ’wait for' is the verb lexeme:
ngabanamarrbbana 7 waited for them (both)' (3UA(0))
nga - bana + marrbba - na
1M - 3UA + wait PC/T
(A) (O)
PP +
for
NUC T
Thus, when discussing verbs as a word class in Nakkara we are referring to the (verbal) nucleus of the VC. For most verbs, this is also the citation form.
Verbs are an open word class, formally distinct from other classes in that any verb can occur with a tense morpheme without the support of derivational affixes. These tense affixes also provide conjugational categorisation of all verbs. (See 5.5.1. for details). Certain pronominal prefix (PP) components are characteristic of intransitive verbs and certain others characteristic of transitive and ditransitive verbs. The accompanying PP forms cannot,however.be readily used as formal criteria for distinguishing verbs from other
word-classes. This is because many PP forms occurring with the VC are identical in form to prefixes occurring with nominal stems.
Verb nuclei are either strictly transitive or strictly intransitive. The nucleus can, however, occur with certain additional affixes which alter the transitivity of the verb stem. The verb corpus in Nakkara is somewhat uncharacteristic of Australian languages (cf. Dixon 1980:420) in having more intransitive than transitive verbs. Many verbs can be translated by a verb in English. In addition to these, there is a fascinating array of verbs depicting actions which might require a lengthy English phrase to describe. For example, kikawa 'to arrange bivalve shellfish in rows over dry grass for steam cooking'.
On the other hand, some apparently simple actions or states are coded in Nakkara using idiom or compounding. The verb 'want' is usually considered to be a simple verb. (It is a semantic primitive in Wierzbicka's theory (1972:15).) In Nakkara (and also in neighbouring Ndjebbana) this verb is idiomatic. 'I want it', namandjarda ngabbarnjanga is literally 'to throat/neck I put it', perhaps, 'I put it to the throat/neck'.
What in English are two very separate verbs might in Nakkara be coded by a single lexeme. For example, the verb warawuma can mean 'to be afraid o f or 'to be embarrassed, shy, "shame"'; belbba can mean 'step on', 'stamp', 'contact' or 'lay out, spread', 'pass' (of time), 'extend' (of distance), 'relate to' (of kin) and 'make be, enable'.
Conversely, Nakkara has several different verbs for some actions that are described by extended phrases in English. Typical examples are the set of verbs in Nakkara for 'carrying/holding':
ka kaddjawa meddja ngorrakiya, marraya mungkarandjiya,
'carry or hold in hand' 'hold, have in possession' 'hold in arms, cuddle' 'carry in arms, nurse' 'carry on head'
'carry/wear round head with weight
murnma, warnakawaya ngorawaraya,
resting on nape' (as e.g. dilly bag) 'carry on shoulder' (as e.g. child)
’carry over shoulder' (as e.g. dead wallaby) 'carry fire as torch'
A verb-complex can be a simple unit, consisting of just the three basic components, PP, Nucleus and Tense. Alternatively, a given VC can consist of ten or more morphological components expressing a wide range of meanings. There are fourteen different morphological slots in the VC. A VC form will vary according to tense, polarity, realis status, mood, participant orientation, as well as contextual sequence and location. In chapters 5 and 6 all VC components are discussed.
3.3. Nominals
According to both formal and functional criteria it is necessary to have a rather large Nominal word class in Nakkara. Nominals are of three types: nouns, adjectives and deictics, although the division between nouns and adjectives is rather fluid. The three types are drawn together as a class on the basis of their function as referents for all manner of objects and entities, their functional distribution within the clause and their relative similarity in inflected form.
Within this Nominal class nouns and adjectives are open sets whereas the deictics (pronouns and demonstratives) constitute several closed sets, constructed on the basis of a few distinctions.
Some nominal lexemes occur always as independent, uninflected forms. Others have a stem as lexeme which must occur with inflections from a pronominal affix paradigm. In addition to these simple nominals there are also compound nominals.
3.3.1. N ouns
Nouns are an open class. Their principal functions in discourse are to refer to, introduce or identify all manner of objects and entities, including inanimate elements of the natural world, supernatural entities and abstract notions.
Unlike other languages of Arnhem Land, Nakkara does not have multiple noun-class affixation (cf. Gunwinygu (Oates, 1964, Carroll, 1976), Maung (Capell and Hinch, 1970) and Gunbarlang (Harris, 1969), (Coleman, in preparation) to the west of Nakkara, Gun- Garragoni (own research) and Gunartpa Burarra (Glasgow K 1984) to the south, other dialects of Burarra to the east and also Anindilyakwa (Leeding 1989),spoken on Groote Eylandt).
There is no formal distinction in Nakkara between nouns denoting.say, plants and animals, except that members from either semantic class might differ in gender. Most nouns in Nakkara do have inherent gender, either masculine or feminine. Most also have inherent moiety, either Djowanga (Dua, Dhuwa) or Yirriddjanga (Yirricha, Yirritja).
Some nouns do have overt morphological material, such as a gender prefix, or may be inflected for non-minimal number. However, these inflectional affixes are simply members of a full set of pronominal oppositions and gender is coded along with person and number. (See Nominal Morphology, especially 4.4. and 4.5.)
As formal entities nouns are either independent non-inflecting lexemes or noun stem lexemes which occur with pronominal inflections. The former type, with derived nominals included, constitute about 65% of the nominal corpus. The remainder are nominal stems which require inflection.
Apart from the phenomenon of compounding, which is common in Nakkara nouns,there is also a noticeable amount of homonymy. This is found mostly in names for plants and animals, even among some of the most commonly used words. For example, nakkamana 'dog' also means 'river garfish'; nabbarakikkakaya 'mouse', 'bush rat' is also a nut tree [Terminalia grandiflora]; nakkoyakoya means' gecko'as well as 'river shark' and the same word, nakkoyakoya, is used for 'sleepiness' and 'sleep' as a measure of time, as in we
were away for three "sleeps", i.e. three days or nights. Repeated enquiries have failed to find evidence of perceived similarities in the homonymic species.
All nouns can function as core elements of a clause. In this way they are distinct from strictly peripheral elements or non-core elements such as locational and time qualifiers, particles and interjections. Nouns can also occur in a peripheral noun phrase, but the strictly peripheral elements never occur as core elements of a clause.