Efectos en el empleo de las políticas «verdes»

The core category is a latent pattern concealed within the data, which gradually emerges as the result of constant coding, comparison, analysis and theoretical sampling and is the essential focus of the study. Grounded theory seeks to understand what is going on from the viewpoint of the participants in the action. It therefore seeks for their principal concern and the ways in which they resolve this concern. The concern becomes the core variable and demonstrates people’s behaviour in that area (Glaser, 1998). The core category may be any sort of theoretical code. Its purpose is the integration and saturation of theory. It is vital that the main concern of the participants emerges, since, without this, the researcher may be in possession of much descriptive material, but has nowhere to focus it. When discovered, this concern always leads to a rich substantive theory (Glaser, 1998), of the constant resolution of the problem by the participants.

After explaining the fundamental elements of grounded theory, the next section discusses in detail, the research design applied in this research.

29 2.6. Research Design

To address the following two broad research questions, the research design used in this study is explained in this section and a summary of the research design is presented in Table 2.

 What is/are the main concern(s) of consumers when faced with a choice of Fairtrade products?

 How are consumers processing this concern?

Research Methodology

Grounded theory methodology Philosophical

Underpinning

Grounded theory as a general research methodology (Glaser, 1998)

Data Analysis Constant comparison method and the analysis techniques as prescribed by gronded theory methodology (Glaser 1978, 1998, 2012).

To develop a grounded theory of consumer behaviour in the context of Fairtrade.

To develop and saturate the categories as guided by the theoretical sampling and coding.

16 Observations with in-depth interviews

To understand and capture the respondents’ actual purchase behaviour, by observing their behaviour whilst discussing what they are doing and why.

28 Interviews with till receipts Validation of claimed behaviour to understand the difference, if any, between the stated and actual behaviour.

Table 2: Research Design Adopted by the Current Study

The choice of research design was governed by the need for a holistic approach to understanding consumers’ concerns, the ways in which they are processing those concerns and the underlying behavioural nuances. Where conventional research practices involve abiding by predetermined research design, grounded theory research design, and its implied agenda of new theory generation evolves during the research process (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Hence the methods of data collection and research design change as new influences emerge from the analysis (Goulding, 2000). Grounded theory methodology is structured but flexible (Glaser & Holton, 2004).

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The data collection and analysis procedures are explicit, and the analysis process is iterative resulting in the emergence of the theory (Glaser & Holton, 2004). Beginning with an eclectic mix of respondents, selected from various sites in Cardiff, UK, so as to avoid preconception, bias and skewing, the process moved on to theoretical sampling where data were collected, analysed, coded and used to direct further data collection. As guided by the tenets of grounded theory, data analysis and collection was pursued in tandem. The research design applied to the present study is explicated in the next two sub-sections.

2.6.1. Sampling Framework

The fair trade consumer behaviour literature is dominated by convenience sampling techniques (Cranfield et al., 2010; Basu & Hicks 2008; Arnot et al., 2006; Auger et al., 2003). Furthermore a skew is observed since these studies mostly depend for their information on samples such as academic and administrative staff (De Pelsmacker et al., 2005), students (Doran, 2010), subscribers to an ethical consumers’ magazine (Shaw & Clarke, 1999) and fair trade road show events (Chatzidakis et al., 2007). In an attempt to minimise this skew the sampling framework in this study covers various sites and an eclectic mix of respondents. Employing classic grounded theory, the sampling strategy cannot be decided at the beginning, but is shaped as the theory emerges. It is guided by theory and analysis, and despite there being no formal sampling strategy, the researcher needs a point at which to start (Glaser, 1978). The researcher will be aware of some aspects of the area to be researched, and would allow those to direct his or her initial data collection, which, once started, directs itself as the researcher conceptualises what the data mean (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).

For this research study, initial methods for recruiting participants included research advertisements (Appendix 4) put up in various sites in the Cardiff, including coffee bars, art centres, local shops, visitor centres, churches, and Cardiff University departments. Consumers were also approached in person in retail premises in two different venues having a broad catchment area - a supermarket (Sainsbury’s, Roath, Cardiff) and a specialist Fairtrade shop (FairDo’s, Canton, Cardiff). Glaser refers to this as a ‘site’ for data collection and data collection from various sites is encouraged, he refers to this as ‘site spreading’, which is determined by the emerging theory (Glaser, 2001, p.181). This helps the researcher to maximise the possibility of obtaining data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).

Although demographic characteristics are not used for data analysis in grounded theory, they have been presented for the purpose of general information. It can be noted that the age range extended from late teens to early eighties and the split between genders was almost equal (Table

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3). Later, theoretical sampling, guided by the emergence of consumer purchase behaviour patterns, was carried out and this included recruiting people from FairDo's which is the only fully Fairtrade shop in Cardiff. Most of the sampling was undertaken in the city of Cardiff (Wales, United Kingdom) because the researcher was based at Cardiff; also time and financial constraints inhibited travelling to other cities for data collection. The data collection methods and their justification are discussed in detail in the following section.

2.6.2. Data Collection

Glaser frequently remarks that all is data (Glaser, 1978). By this he means that all information, all data, every iota of knowledge which passes our way is data, hence, all kinds of data are relevant.

Perhaps they need to be at least marginally germane, but notwithstanding their origin any data which appear are capable of having reference. This implies that the researcher should try to develop an empathy with the substantive area and its denizens - since all the data express in principle the respondent’s view - so as to become more fully immersed, and hence needs to be flexible in approach (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). In grounded theory, the analyst also needs to be aware that the advent of new data may cause his or her perceptions to change as the modifying effect is fed into the process.

Data collected for this research were qualitative in nature. Data collection was carried out in two inter-related stages: the first of which consisted of twelve initial in-depth interviews. After the initial analysis was obtained from coding, a further fourteen in-depth interviews were conducted to understand consumers’ concerns and the ways in which they resolve those concerns. Because of an awareness of the phenomena of socially desirable responses (Nancarrow et al., 2005) and the attitude-behaviour gap in ethical consumer behaviour (Carrington et al., 2014), interviewees were asked to retain till receipts to compare the stated with the actual behaviour. Twenty eight respondents volunteered to provide till receipts for their purchases. To further understand the phenomenon and actual behaviour, a further sixteen interviews in combination with observations were conducted in a purchase environment, retail outlet and events, where behaviour could be observed simultaneously with discussion of intention and attitude. The scope of data collected is shown in Table 3.

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Data Collection Site Gender Age Occupation

1 Interview Participant's home Female 20-30 Research student

2 Interview with receipt Cardiff University Post

Graduate Centre Female 20-30 Research student

3 Interview Participant's home Female 40-50 Housewife

4 Interview with receipt Coffee Shop Female 20-30 Housewife

5 Interview with receipt

and observation FairDos Cardiff Female 40-50 Letting Agent

6 Interview In a church Male 50-60 Unemployed

and observation FairDos Cardiff Male 30-40 Student

9 Interview Participant's home Male 30-40 Student

10 Interview with receipt Participant's home Male 30-40 Student

11 Interview Cardiff City Hall Female 40-50 Artist

12 Interview with receipt Cardiff University

Students' Union Female 40-50 Artist

13 Interview and

observation FairDos Cardiff Male 60-70 Unemployed

14 Interview with receipt In a church in Cardiff City Male 60-70 Works at a church 15 Interview with receipt Cardiff University Female 40-50 University Lecturer 16 Interview and

observation FairDos Cardiff Female 30-40 Student

17 Interview with receipt Cardiff University Post

Graduate Centre Female 30-40 Research student

18 Interview Coffee shop- Coffee#1 Male 20-30 Works as a volunteer

at a charity shop 19 Interview with

Observation FairDos Cardiff Female 40-50 Housewife

20 Interview with

Observation FairDos Cardiff Male 20-30 Student

21 Interview

with Observation FairDos Cardiff Male 30-40 Unemployed

22 Interview with receipt At work place Male 30-40 Solicitor

23 Interview At work place Male 20-30 Lawyer

24 Interview and

observation FairDos Cardiff Male Less than

20 Student

25 Interview with receipt Cardiff University

Students' Union Male Less than

20 Student

26 Interview and

observation FairDos Cardiff Female 20-30 Unemployed

27 Interview Coffee shop- Coffee#1 Female 20-30 Works as a volunteer

at a charity shop

28 Interview Art centre- Chapter

Cardiff Male 40-50 Unemployed

29 Interview Cardiff University Bute

Building Male 20-30 Research student

30 Interview with receipt Restaurant Male 20-30 Research student

31 Interview with receipt Ice cream parlour Male 20-30 Research student

32 Interview Art Centre Cardiff Female 30-40 Works as a volunteer

at a charity shop

33 Interview Cardiff University Male 30-40 Lecturer

34 Interview and

observation FairDos Cardiff Female 30-40 Secretary

35 Interview Art centre- Chapter Female 20-30 Student

36 Interview Cardiff University Female 40-50 Secretary

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37 Interview Coffee shop Female 30-40 Marketing

practitioner

38 Interview Restaurant Female 30-40 Lecturer

39 Interview with receipts Coffee shop Female 30-40 Lecturer

40 Interview Participant's home Male 40-50 Solicitor

41 Interview with receipts Participant's home 40-50 Unemployed

42 Interview At work place Male 40-50 Unemployed

43 Interview Participant's home Female 40-50 Music teacher

44 Interview At work place Male 30-40 Line manager

45 Interview with receipts At work place Male 30-40 Line manager

46 Interview FairDos Cardiff Female 30-40 Unemployed

47 Interview Cardiff University Post

Graduate Centre Female 30-40 Student

48 Interview Skype Female 30-40 Research student

49 Interview with receipts Participant's home Female 20-30 Student

50 Interview Participant's home Female 30-40 Housewife

51 Interview Participant's work place Female 40-50 Secretary

52 Interview Skype interview Female 30-40 Housewife

53 Interview Participant's work place Female 40-50 Secretary

54 Interview with receipts

and observation FairDos Cardiff Male 30-40 Unemployed

55 Interview with receipts

and observation FairDos Cardiff Male 20-30 Student

56 Interview with receipts Cardiff University Post

Graduate Centre Female 20-30 Works as a volunteer at a charity shop

57 Interview Skype Female 40-50 Lecturer

58 Interview Restaurant Male 30-40 Student

59 Interview with receipts Restaurant Male 40-50 Businessman

60 Interview with receipt Participant's home Male 20-30 Works as a volunteer at a charity shop 61 Interview with receipts Cardiff University Post

Graduate Centre Female 20-30 Research student 62 Interview with

observation FairDos Cardiff Male 30-40 Unemployed

63 Interview with

observation FairDos Cardiff Male Unemployed

64 Interview with

observation FairDos Cardiff Female 20-30 Works as a volunteer

at a charity shop 65 Interview with

observation FairDos Cardiff Female 40-50 Shop employee

66 Interview with receipt Coffee shop Female 20-30 Student

67 Interview with receipt Coffee shop Female 50-60 Unemployed

68 Interview with receipt Restaurant Male 50-60 Self employed

69 Interview with receipt Coffee shop Male 40-50 Employed

70 Interview with receipt Restaurant Male 50-60 Businessman

Table 3: Sampling Characteristics of the Current Study 2.6.2.1. In Depth Interviews

For a researcher using classic grounded theory, the interview is one of the routes for the discovery of data; (Glaser 1978, 1998) however, the interview does have some definite advantages, in that it can reveal a wealth of data, if accessed and analysed properly. The principle reason for employing in-depth interviews in this study is that the psycho-sociological factors

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upon which consumer behaviour depends could be better understood from interview data (McCracken, 1988).

This technique further allows the interviewer access into the subjective world of the participant.

No other method, therefore, gives access to such rich in-depth data, and permits the interviewer to see the world through the participant’s eyes (McCracken, 1988). As Belk (2013) posits, if the issue is something of importance to the respondent, an in-depth interview has the potential for obtaining extensive knowledge. Furthermore, the interview is a flexible tool, which allows the researcher the opportunity to pursue a thread or leave it, to follow one aspect of investigation or many, to return to previous remarks to investigate further and finally to, if required, expand and change the narrative of the interview based upon other influences and inputs (Hair et al., 2006).

Some researchers in fair trade consumer behaviour have employed in-depth interviews in an attempt to understand the apocryphal intention-behaviour gap, also referred to as the attitude-behaviour gap, (Carrington et al., 2014; Chatzidakis et al., 2007). Shaw et al. (2006) pursue their investigation into the impact of Fairtrade on the garment industry using interviews as a form of collecting qualitative data. However, these studies try to force data onto pre-existing theories, which may not be relevant to the respondents. The interview therefore is suited to the purpose of this research – which intended to discover participant's concerns from their own personal accounts. In an in-depth qualitative interview, the interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about events, behaviour and beliefs in relation to the substantive area, producing a non-directed interaction (Saunders et al., 2007). Despite it providing significant challenges for the researcher, it is important for the grounded theorist that specific questions are avoided during interviews, since such could easily prejudice the essentially non-pre-conceived nature of the interview. Later, as a function of emergent theory, the questioning can become more directed (Glaser, 1978).

This is not to say that there are no disadvantages to using interviews. Respondents need to be recruited and may need to be rewarded, leading to very real financial and time-related costs.

Further, the number of respondents is low, since there are inevitable time constraints (Webb, 2002). Every researcher needs a point at which to start, or metaphorically find a corner piece.

However, beginning by already knowing too much about the substantive area is detrimental to the discovery of new material (Glaser, 1998). According to Fontana and Frey (as cited in Denzin

& Lincoln, 2005), unstructured interviewing attempts to understand the complex behaviour of members of society without imposing any a priori categorisation which may limit the field of enquiry.

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In this study, the initial exploration of consumer attitudes, opinions and behaviours towards Fairtrade was conducted by means of in-depth preliminary interviews. This is intended to draw out subliminal views, attitudes and behavioural patterns without being specific, and letting the participants talk. The underlying purpose of this course of action is that it is felt necessary to avoid prejudicing the outcome by mentioning the target subject at the beginning. The respondent is informed that research, in which he or she has been invited to participate, is designed to obtain the respondent’s attitudes and behaviour towards Fairtrade.

The interview guide was dependent on the respondents’ discussion and not any pre-set questions. Concurrent with further interviews, data arrived, were analysed coded and memos written up, relationships began to appear which began to feed into subsequent interviews. As the analysis progressed and more interviews were conducted, interviewees were asked to retain their till receipts over a period of three months, and then to be re-interviewed at a later date along with the receipts. This was done to demonstrate whether or not their stated behaviour, through interviews, reflected their intentions and actual behaviour. This approach was taken to try to reduce the problem of social desirability bias (Nancarrow et al., 2005).

2.6.2.2. Observations and Interviews

As the analysis progressed and the behavioural patterns (Cynical, Sceptical, Questioning but Supporting, Supporting but Vacillating, and Supporting and Committed discussed in detail in Chapters 3 and 4) started to emerge, further theoretical sampling together with observation (Table 4) was carried out to obtain more data to saturate the categories. Though Burgess (1982) stresses the importance of talking to people to understand their view point, often there is an established inconsistency in ethical consumption between what people say and what they do (Boulstridge & Carrigan, 2000; Chatzidakis et al., 2007; De Pelsmacker & Janssens, 2007; Bray, 2008; Carrington et al., 2010; Pedregal & Ozcaglar-Toulouse, 2011), yet simply observing people reveals little and is subjective and non-involving for the observer. It is only when the observed person discusses their behaviour to explain it, that it comes to life and can be interpreted. In a similar vein, Loureiro et al. (2001) stress the need for obtaining live consumer behaviour observations combined with quantitative survey questionnaires. In their study they interviewed consumers directly in grocery stores which ensured both that the people interviewed were the actual decision makers and that their genuine preferences for eco-labelled products could be evoked. However the survey technique imposes pre-set questions which may have no bearing on the participant's view point.

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In this present research, in-depth interviews were coupled with observations and were used in tandem so as to both know how the respondents actually behaved whilst simultaneously giving meaning to their behaviour. Furthermore, as guided by theoretical sampling, to understand the Cynical and Sceptical views and attitudes towards Fairtrade, it was decided to attend meetings of Sceptics in the Pub⁸, where people were invited to participate in interviews, some of which were conducted during or after the events, while other interviews were conducted at a later point. To facilitate comprehension of the views and attitudes of consumers exhibiting Supporting and Committed behaviour, observations and interviews were arranged in FairDo's, a dedicated Fairtrade shop in Cardiff. As a further step towards combining observation with conversation, after their first interviews, respondents were also asked to keep till receipts recording their purchases. This evidential approach was invoked so as to demonstrate discrepancies between described and actual behaviour.

As a result of an invitation to FairDo’s customers to be interviewed, sixteen in-depth interviews and observations (Table 4) were recorded at FairDo's. Some interviews were conducted individually in the shop at the time of the consumer’s visit, while others were conducted at a later point in time.

S. No Observations followed by interviews Gender Age

1 Pointing at various things

2 Having a look around in the shop: jewelry, pouches etc Buying a gift for someone

Bought Palestinian virgin olive oil. Looks like they are familiar with this product because they just picked it up without thinking much.

Bought a pair of earrings, Divine chocolate bars Spent around 8-10 minutes in the shop

Two females 20-30 years

3 Having a look around: greeting cards, handicrafts, clothes, pouches.

Shops at Asda but said she cannot find many Fairtrade products at Asda so buys from Fairdo’s.

Always buys Fairtrade bananas

Do not come in often but when comes to the shop she spends some time in the shop because interesting Fairtrade

Female 30-40 years

8Founded by Dr. Scott Campbell in 199, Sceptics in the Pub entails series of events based on discussion surrounding critical thinking.

37 things

Bought a pair of gloves, greeting cards and dried fruit Spent around 15-20 minutes in the shop

7 Came and bought cake, chocolate and greeting card Was in hurry

10 Looking at stuff: clothes, incense Spent 3-5 minutes in the shop Went out without buying anything

Male 30-40 years

11 Looking around: food section, greeting cards Spent 8 minutes in the shop

Bought divine chocolate, Fairbreak biscuits, greeting cards

Female 20-30 years

12 Having a look around Spent 8 minutes in the shop Bought mints, friendship band

Female 40-50 years

13 Came in and straightaway picked up the shopping basket which indicates he is in the shop for buying Fairtrade products.

Spent 8-10 minutes in the shop

Bought Fairtrade canned drinks, water bottle, chocolate, dry fruit, flapjack golden syrup, fruit cup

Bought Fairtrade canned drinks, water bottle, chocolate, dry fruit, flapjack golden syrup, fruit cup

In document Informe sobre el trabajo en el mundo 2009 (página 137-143)