ESTRUCTURA Y TENDENCIA DEL COMERCIO EXTERIOR

Penner et al. (1997) proposed a causal model of OCB that categorised OCB into behaviour that was a reaction to situational demands (intermediate OCB) and behaviours that was more long term (enduring OCB). These researchers proposed that engagement in intermediate OCB, which was behaviour that was consistent with OCB, in response to a situational requirement, leads individuals to develop a sense of themselves or an ‘identity’ that is consistent with an OCB-like pattern of behaviour. These researchers proposed that the

internalisation of this ‘citizen role identity’ increases the likelihood of further OCB responses; these further OCB responses were conceptualised as an enduring response pattern that is consistent with OCB behaviours. The causal nature of this model comes from its explanation of the genesis of OCB in the individual.

Penner et al’s (1997) causal model of OCB proposed that a range of factors influence intermediate citizenship behaviour. These factors included organisational variables such as

organisational justice and individual variables such as job attitudes (e.g., satisfaction), the individual’s mood on the job, their pro-social orientation and the individual’s motives for engaging in OCB. These variables were proposed to have a strong impact on intermediate OCB within the model. The model further proposed that an individual’s pro-social

orientation and motives for OCB also had a direct impact on enduring OCB but this direct relationship with enduring OCB was somewhat weaker than the other relationships within this model. A diagrammatic representation of Penner et al.’s (1997) causal model for OCB is detailed in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3. Representation of Penner et al’s (1997, p. 127) Causal Model for OCB.

Several causal or input variables in Penner et al.’s (1997) model are more relevant to the prediction of OCB once individuals are engaged in the workplace than they are in a personnel selection context, e.g.: organisational variables, job attitudes and mood on the job. These

variables are likely to be dependent on the particular job or organisational context and are less meaningful in a personnel selection context where the aim is to predict the likelihood of engagement in OCB from a dispositional assessment. The pro-social orientation and motives variables, however, are likely to be existent for the individual prior to engagement in a

particular workplace. The pro-social orientation and motives variables as antecedents to OCB will be discussed in detail in the following paragraphs to illustrate how this causal model of OCB supports the predictive validity of dispositional tendencies for an OCB outcome.

Penner et al.’s (1997) proposed that an individual’s pro-social orientation influences both intermediate and to a lesser extent enduring OCB. The model defined a pro-social orientation as “an enduring predisposition to feel concern about the welfare of other people, to think about their best interests, and to engage in actions on their behalf” (Penner et al., 1997, p. 121). The concept of ‘pro-social orientation’ derives from Penner, Fritzsche, Craiger and Freifeld’s (1995) concept of the ‘pro-social personality’. Penner et al. (1995) demonstrated that willingness to assist others, feel empathy towards them and engage in actions that benefits others was an individual difference variable that was assessable and replicable and these researchers demonstrated that that pro-social behavioural tendencies were effective in predicting helping behaviour (Penner & Finkelstein, 1996). These pro-social orientation or pro-social personality tendencies are likely to have significant overlap with other measures of personality that assess an individual’s ‘other-orientated’ tendencies. In the FFM, the domain most closely aligned with ‘other orientated’ tendencies is the agreeableness domain which assesses an individual’s tendency to be compassionate and cooperative. It would be expected that this domain of the FFM would have predictive validity for OCB given the influence of pro-social orientation on both intermediate and enduring OCB in Penner et al.’s (1997) causal model.

The other aspect of Penner et al.’s (1997) model that is likely to support the predictive validity of dispositional tendencies in an OCB outcome is the ‘motives’ variable. Rioux and Penner (2001) used a ‘functional approach’ to clarify this aspect of Penner et al’s (1997) causal model. The functional approach to behaviour proposes that human behaviour can be understood by considering the function served by the behaviour; how the behaviour serves the individual’s goals or needs. Rioux and Penner (2001) demonstrated empirically that

individuals engaged in OCB for three primary functions; pro-social values, organisational concern and impression management. Individuals who engaged in OCB because of pro- social values were motivated to be helpful, accepted by others and interact harmoniously with their colleagues. Individuals who engaged in OCB for an organisational concern motive were motivated to engage in the helping behaviour because they had pride in the organisation and those who engaged in OCB for an impression management motive did so to create a positive impression of themselves to others.

In considering the likely dispositional predictors of OCB from the motives perspectives of Penner et al.’s (1997) causal model, it is likely that an assessment of pro-social dispositional tendencies taps the pro-social values aspect of the motives component of the model. Within the FFM of personality, an assessment of pro-social tendencies would be assessed by the agreeableness domain. The organisational concern motive however, is likely to have conceptual overlap with the conscientiousness domain of the FFM. The conscientiousness domain typically provides an assessment of an individual’s work ethic and their level of devotion to occupational tasks. As such, it is likely that the conscientiousness domain of the FFM would tap content related to the organisational concern motive of Penner et al.’s (1997) causal model. In considering the third motive identified by Rioux and Penner (2001), the

impression management motive, research suggests that there is significant content overlap between the FFM domains of emotionality and conscientiousness and an assessment of positive impression management (e.g., Ones & Viswesveran, 1999; Birkeland, Manson, Kisamore, Brannick & Smith, 2006). This research demonstrated that emotionality has a negative relationship with impression management whilst conscientiousness has a positive relationship. The breadth of literature supporting this relationship will be detailed in Chapter 5. The degree of shared variance between these measures indicates that the FFM domains of emotionality and conscientiousness are likely to have predictive validity in representing the impression management motives aspect of Penner et al.’s (1997) causal model of OCB.

In summary, Penner et al.’s (1997) causal model of OCB supports the predictive validity of pro-social tendencies for OCB. These pro-social tendencies are represented through both the pro-social orientation aspect and pro-social motives variable of the model. Within the FFM the agreeableness domain, with its content related compassion and cooperation, is likely to provide an assessment of an individual’s pro-social tendencies. Penner et al’s (1997) model also supports the predictive validity of the conscientiousness domain for an OCB outcome. This domain is likely to be influential when individuals engage in OCB for organisational concern and positive impression management motives. The emotionality domain of the FFM is also likely to be influential in this model through the variance this domain shares with an individual’s tendency to engage in impression management.