DEL ESTUDIANTE-TRABAJADOR

The concept of ecosystem services has been developed for various reasons. Many of its advocates believe that valuing services in monetary ways is the only way to give

environmental issues a voice that they otherwise don’t have. In this context, they point out that

many development decisions are made based on cost-benefit analysis and that any issues not represented in it loose out. Ecosystem services are thus meant to aid our understanding of the human use and management of natural resources (www.ecosystemservices.org.uk).

The main reason why ecosystem services are considered important is that human health and wellbeing depend upon them and the

components that contribute to them - water, soil, nutrients and organisms. Ecosystem services are defined in various ways.  The Millennium

Ecosystem Assessment defined ecosystem services as follows

(www.milleniumassessment.org):

l Supporting services:  These are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem

services including soil formation,

photosynthesis, primary production, nutrient cycling and water cycling;

l Provisioning services:  These are the products obtained from ecosystems,

including food, fibre, fuel, genetic resources, bio-chemicals, natural medicines,

pharmaceuticals, ornamental resources and fresh water;

l Regulating services:  These describe the benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes, including regulation of air quality, climate, water, erosion, water purification, disease, pest, pollination, natural hazards; and

l Cultural services:  These are the non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation and aesthetic experiences – thereby taking account of landscape values

Boxes 4.3 to 4.6 explain the four types of

services in further detail (following UNEP – TEEB; http://www.teebweb.org/resources/ecosystem- services/):

Box 4.3: Provisioning ecosystem services

Source: http://www.teebweb.org/resources/ecosystem-services/

l Food: Ecosystems provide the conditions for growing food. Food comes principally from managed agro- ecosystems but marine and freshwater systems or forests also provide food for human consumption. Wild foods from forests are often underestimated.

l Raw materials: Ecosystems provide a great diversity of materials for construction and fuel including wood, biofuels and plant oils that are directly derived from wild and cultivated plant species.

l Fresh water: Ecosystems play a vital role in the global hydrological cycle, as they regulate the flow and purification of water. Vegetation and forests influence the quantity of water available locally.

l Medicinal resources: Ecosystems and biodiversity provide many plants used as traditional medicines as well as providing the raw materials for the pharmaceutical industry. All ecosystems are a potential source of medicinal resources.

Box 4.4: Regulating ecosystem services

Source: http://www.teebweb.org/resources/ecosystem-services/

l Local climate and air quality: Trees provide shade while forests influence rainfall and water availability both locally and regionally. Trees or other plants also play an important role in regulating air quality by removing pollutants from the atmosphere.

l Carbon sequestration and storage: Ecosystems regulate the global climate by storing and sequestering greenhouse gases. As trees and plants grow, they remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and effectively lock it away in their tissues. In this way forest ecosystems are carbon stores. Biodiversity also plays an important role by improving the capacity of ecosystems to adapt to the effects of climate change. l Moderation of extreme events: Extreme weather events or natural hazards include floods, storms, tsunamis,

avalanches and landslides. Ecosystems and living organisms create buffers against natural disasters, thereby preventing possible damage. For example, wetlands can soak up flood water while trees can stabilize slopes. Coral reefs and mangroves help protect coastlines from storm damage.

l Waste-water treatment: Ecosystems such as wetlands filter both human and animal waste and act as a natural buffer to the surrounding environment. Through the biological activity of microorganisms in the soil, most waste is broken down. Thereby pathogens (disease causing microbes) are eliminated, and the level of nutrients and pollution is reduced.

l Erosion prevention and maintenance of soil fertility: Soil erosion is a key factor in the process of land degradation and desertification. Vegetation cover provides a vital regulating service by preventing soil erosion. Soil fertility is essential for plant growth and agriculture and well-functioning ecosystems supply the soil with nutrients required to support plant growth.

l Pollination: Insects and wind pollinate plants and trees which is essential for the development of fruits, vegetables and seeds. Animal pollination is an ecosystem service mainly provided by insects but also by some birds and bats. Some 87 out of the 115 leading global food crops depend upon animal pollination including important cash crops such as cocoa and coffee (Klein et al. 2007).

l Biological control: Ecosystems are important for regulating pests and vector borne diseases that attack plants, animals and people. Ecosystems regulate pests and diseases through the activities of predators and parasites. Birds, bats, flies, wasps, frogs and fungi all act as natural controls.

The Institute for Environmental Management and Assessment (IEMA) explains the potentially beneficial role of making ecosystem services one of the inputs into EIA (See:

http://www.iema.net/readingroom/e- briefings/considering-ecosystem-services- environmental-impact-assessment). They explain that the consideration of ecosystem services in EIA can help increase the understanding of secondary and cumulative effects on ecosystems and the services they provide to society and identifying issues that may otherwise have been missed.

4.7

Practical element

Groups of students should reflect on specific environmental problems in Pakistan and how they are being aggravated or not by human activities - directly, i.e. construction, as well as indirectly, i.e. climate change. Green Living Association: http://www.greenlivingasc.org/?p=1 and World Bank (2006b). Pakistan Strategic Country

Environmental Assessment,

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAE XT/Resources/Publications/448813-

1188777211460/pakceavolume2.pdf.

Box 4.5: Habitat or supporting ecosystem services

Source: http://www.teebweb.org/resources/ecosystem-services/

l Habitats for species: Habitats provide everything that an individual plant or animal needs to survive - food; water; and shelter. Each ecosystem provides different habitats that can be essential for the lifecycle of a species. Migratory species including birds, fish, mammals and insects all depend upon different

ecosystems during their movements.

l Maintenance of genetic diversity: Genetic diversity is the variety of genes between and within species populations. Genetic diversity distinguishes different breeds or races from each other thus providing the basis for locally well-adapted cultivars and a gene pool for further developing commercial crops and livestock. Some habitats have an exceptionally high number of species which makes them more genetically diverse than others and are known as ‘biodiversity hotspots’

Box 4.6: Cultural ecosystem services

Source: http://www.teebweb.org/resources/ecosystem-services/

l Recreation and mental and physical health: Walking and playing sports in green space is not only a good form of physical exercise but also lets people relax. The role that green space plays in maintaining mental and physical health is increasingly being recognised, despite difficulties of measurement.

l Tourism: Ecosystems and biodiversity play an important role for many kinds of tourism which in turn provides considerable economic benefits and is a vital source of income for many countries. In 2008, global earnings from tourism summed up to US$ 944 billion. Cultural and eco-tourism can also educate people about the importance of biological diversity.

l Aesthetic appreciation and inspiration for culture, art and design: Language, knowledge and the natural environment have been intimately related throughout human history. Biodiversity, ecosystems and natural landscapes have been the source of inspiration for much of our art, culture and increasingly for science. l Spiritual experience and sense of place: In many parts of the world natural features such as specific forests,

caves or mountains are considered sacred or have a religious meaning. Nature is a common element of all major religions and traditional knowledge, and associated customs are important for creating a sense of belonging.

This chapter introduces environmental policies, as well as the legal and administrative framework for EIA in Pakistan. It is divided into eight sections. First, a brief review of the National Conservation Strategy and Environmental Policy is provided. EIA related provisions within the Federal and Provincial Environmental Protection Acts and Review of IEE and EIA Regulations are then introduced. This is followed by an overview of the EPAs’ guidelines, policy and procedure for EIA report preparation and checklist. Finally, the administrative setup and environmental tribunals as well as problems in enforcement of EIA related legal provisions are outlined.

5.1 Environmental Policies

Pakistan’s National Conservation Strategy (NCS) was formulated in 1992 in collaboration with the IUCN. Numerous experts from various backgrounds pertaining to the natural and built environment contributed to the formulation of this policy. The process involved consultations with some 3000

stakeholders from various walks of life over a period of three years through several workshops funded by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and the UNDP. While taking stock of the natural, human and financial resources, institutional capacity and considering the gravity of environmental and socio-economic challenges facing the country, the strategy identified the following three main objectives:

l Conservation of natural resources; l Sustainable development; and

l Improved efficiency in the use and management of resources. Its operating principles aspire to:

l Achieving greater public partnership in development and management; l Merging environment and economy in decision-making; and

l Focussing on durable improvements in the quality of life (GoP/IUCN, 1992).

Moreover, it presents reviews of policies, legal instruments and programmes related to the environment existing at the time of formulating this strategy. It

5 Environmental Policies, Legal

and Administrative Framework for EIA