Given the dependence of humans on the earth as their life-supporting system, the importance of integrating the environment into human activities and decision-making has become widely
acknowledged. There are different ways in which environmental integration can occur. These include environmental movements, environmental regulations, treaties and agreements and
environmental tools, such as planning, management and assessment.
4.4.1 Environmental movements Concerns for the environment grew, as the impact of human activities became clearer and their magnitude more significant. Concerns were raised by individuals and groups of concerned people with scientific, social and political agendas, generating the basis for environmental movements. The first environmental movement in modern times occurred in the 1960s and 1970s, resulting in the creation of new environmental organisations (e.g. Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace), the celebration of the first “Earth day” (April 22nd, 1970) and the publication of various books (Rachel Carson’s 1962 “Silent Spring”; Paul Ehrlich’s 1968 “The Population Bomb”; Aldo Leopold’s 1949 “A Sand County Almanac”; Ian McHarg’s 1969 “Design with Nature” and Meadows et al.’s 1972 “The Limits to Growth”). The origins of the modern day
environmental movement go back more than 200 years earlier with the work of numerous
Subsequently, environmental concerns were also brought forward through conferences and meetings (See: Box 4.2) as well as international agreements and protocols. The Kyoto Protocol, for example, is an agreement made under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It is an amendment to the international treaty on climate change and it assigns mandatory emission limitations for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions to the signatory nations (See also:
http://unfccc.int/2860.php).
The further development of the environmental movement witnessed a growing awareness of the scope and complexity of environmental issues, stressing the importance of understanding the economic and political components (Fischer and Hajer, 1999). This resulted in the concept of sustainable development, according to which
development must occur in an economically and environmentally sustainable manner i.e. ‘meeting the needs of the world’s current population without jeopardising those of future generations’; (the definition of the World Commission from 1987). The concept of sustainable development is, however, not accepted among all
environmentalists (Fischer and Hajer, 1999; Kemp, 2004; Berkhout, Leach and Scoones, 2003). On the one hand, the so-called technocratic environmentalists support the concept. They believe that using technology and managerial techniques, environment can be administered for the benefit of society. On the other hand, eco-centric environmentalists believe humans are not the only or most important species. Therefore, priority should not be given to human needs over the needs of other species. Those who embrace eco-centrism are often seen as unrealistic in their demands, because they
Box 4.1: Precursors of environmentalism
Source: after Gazzola, 2008, p 64
James Hutton (1726-1797) and Charles Lyell (1797-1875): looked at the dynamic nature of the lithosphere, emphasising how it could contribute to environmental change;
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and Alfred Russel Wallace (1832-1913): recognised the importance of gradual and cumulative change in plant and animal communities. Darwin, with his publication “On the Origin of Species” (1859) developed the theory of evolution, including the concept of natural selection, which was also a study on environmental change;
Thomas Malthus (1766-1834): studied the relationship between population growth and food supply;
Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859): recognised that the environment was being changed by human activities; Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832): explored the relationship between society and nature at a cerebral level;
Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862): best known for his work “Walden” (1854), rejected materialism and studied nature to improve the quality and meaning of life. Through his observations he became aware of the concept of forest succession and subsequently advocated the creation of wilderness parks for the preservation of nature; George Perkins Marsh (1801-1882): in 1864 he published “Man and Nature”, where he included details of the impact of human activities on the environment;
John Muir (1838-1914): one of the first environmental activists to use writing and political contacts to promote the preservation of the western wilderness. He was a founding member and the first president of the Sierra Club;
Aldo Leopold (1878-1848): is regarded as the father of wildlife management and founding member of the Wilderness Society. He appreciated the interrelationships among the various components of the environment and considered the concept of ecosystem as central to the management of nature (see his book ‘A Sand County Almanac’, published in 1949);
Rachel Carson (1907-1964): author of the best-seller ‘Silent Spring’ (1962) drew attention to the environmental impact of chemicals.
create a false equality amongst the components of the biosphere, ignoring that humans have technical and intellectual attributes that make them different from other living organisms (See also: Ntsime, 2004).
4.4.2 Environmental regulations, treaties, protocols and agreements
There are a number of environmental regulations, treaties, protocols and agreements that have been developed worldwide to support the
consideration of the environment in development, including e.g. the outputs of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development or NGO treaties, such as the Earth Charter which consisted of eight principles for sustainable development intended to parallel the Rio Declaration (See:
http://www.earthcharter.org). Following Kemp (1994), treaties can be grouped according to various clusters:
l NGO cooperation and institution-building cluster, including treaties on technology, sharing of resources, poverty,
communications, global decision-making and proposals for NGO action;
l alternative economy issues cluster, including treaties on economic models, trade, debt, consumption and lifestyles;
l major environmental issues cluster, including treaties on climate, forests, biodiversity, energy, oceans, toxic and nuclear waste; l food production cluster, including treaties on
sustainable agriculture, food security and fisheries; and
l cross-sectoral issues cluster, including treaties on racism, militarism, women’s issues, population, youth, environmental education, urbanisation and indigenous peoples.
The commitment to treaties and protocols often refer to the time in which the summits or conferences took place. Climate change
conventions tend to maintain a very high profile, due to the constant issues concerning global warming, while other types of environmental issues are progressing slowly (Redclift, 1991; Fischer and Hajer, 1999; Jordan, 2005). For comprehensive lists of environmental treaties, conventions and protocols,
See:http://www.chanrobles.com/environmentreati
es.htm