Evaluación del Aprendizaje

Jihād movements became a significant issue during the wave of westernization movements in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; these provided several forms of colonization, ranging from physical colonization to social, political and economic colonization. Many traditional and modern Muslim leaders and scholars perceived colonization to be a threat to the Muslim world because it asserted hegemony. This issue has long been the concern of many Muslim leaders and scholars.

In response to this colonization, Muslim society became divided in its viewpoints and attitudes toward the West. The adherents of each of these positions attempted to influence the others. The first was a group that tended to uncritically imitate the West: its adherents can be identifīed as ‘Westernized Muslims’. The second was a group that tended to selectively imitate the West. They took what they considered to be good, and discarded what they considered to be bad. They still maintained their religious norms and culture, and took from the West only what fītted with these. The third group adhered strictly to their religious teachings and traditions. They rejected whatever came from the West

and considered it to be a moral danger for the Muslim world.22 It was from this group attitude that the idea of Jihād movements against any oppressors and aggressors developed.

Jihād movements have been aiming at reviving the Islamic spirit that is based on the Qur’ān and the Hadīth. Jihād movements against Western colonization in many Muslim countries had repercussions on the subsequent development of Islam. Therefore, to study the history of Jihād and its movements, it is very important to see the linkage. Some Muslims often neglect the concept of Jihād in Sufism, even though it has a close relationship to the Jihād movements in Islamic history. This study is very significant in aiding understanding of the nature and the character of the concept of Jihād in Islam in general, and the concept of Jihād in Sufism that has driven Islamic and social movements in Islamic history.

Jihād movements varied in many Muslim countries. Local conditions and the religious teachings of the masters, as well as the understanding of religious teachings in society certainly influenced this variety. Studying the relationship between the concept of Jihād in Sufism, and the Jihād movements which marked the revival of Islamic movements, will offer a new context for understanding the concepts of Jihād and Sufism and their relationship to the revival of Islamic movements.

22 _{This is in accordance with Fazlur Rahman’s typology of Muslim groups in relation to}

the secular West. To explain it, Rahman uses the terms Westernized modernist for the first, Neo revivalist for the second and conservative for the third. In his studies, Rahman more widely grasps the problems of classical modernism, Neo-modernism and revivalism. See Fazlur Rahman, Islam Challenges and Opportunities, Indonesian translation by Yayasan Obor in Perkembangan Modern dalam Islam edited by Harun Nasution and Azyumardi Azra ( Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, December 1985 ) , 9-44. See also Ali Shariati, Man and Islam, Indonesian translation by Amin Rais, in Tugas Cendekiawan Muslim ( Jakarta: Rajawali Press, 1987 ) , 105-116.

This thesis draws on several works on Sufism and its development in the context of the Malay world. However, these works are not specifīcally about Jihād concepts in Sufism and the relationship between Sufism and the revival of Islamic movements. The first, most notable work to mention is G.W.J. Drewes’ Directions for Travelers on the Mystic Path (1977). This book describes the important role of Sūfīs in the early Islamization of the Malay Archipelago.23 Drewes goes on to explain the biography of the author of Risālah fī’al-Tawhīd (Treatise on the Oneness of God), Shaikh Wali Raslan of Damascus. This work has been commented on by many Muslims since its publication and has been widely disseminated in the Malay world. The Treatise is still important, and is being studied at the present time.24

In connection with understanding Islamic Sharī’ah from both its inner side (Sufism) and its outer side (Fīqh, or Islamic jurisprudence), Drewes explains that the Sūfī Wali Raslan integrated the outer Sharī’ah or Fīqh (Islamic jurisprudence) with Sufism. At some time or other Wali Raslan joined the fīght against the crusaders. This shows that warrior-saints are not unknown in the history of Islam.25 _{Drewes also gives an explanation about the commentator Shaikh} Zakariyya al-Anshari, whom he called a pillar of Fīqh and Tasawuf. Zakariyya al- Anshari is a name one often comes across in Indonesian religious literature, particularly in connection with the development of Shafī’i jurisprudence. This famous scholar died in Cairo in 1520. He had a high position among religious

23 _{GWJ. Drewes, Directions for Travelers on the Mystic Path ( The Hague: Martinus}

Nijhoff, 1977 ) , 1-5.

24 _{Ibid., 5-25.} 25 _{Ibid., 25.}

scholars of the Shafī’i school of law and he was called by the honorary title of “Shaikh al-Islam”.26

Zakariyya al-Anshari was renowned in the Malay World - modern Indonesia and Malaysia - and is cited in works by Malays. He was quoted for example by the Acehnese scholars Nur al-Din al-Ranniri (first half of the seventeenth century), Abdurrauf (latter part of the seventeenth century), the Palembang writers, Shihabuddin and Kemas Fachruddin (mid 18th _{century), Muhammad} Arshad bin Abdullah al Bukhari from Banjar (latter part of the eighteenth century) and Dawud Al Fatani (first half of the nineteenth century).27

The second body of work that this thesis draws upon is the writing of A. H. Johns. Johns’ work on Malay Sufism explains the pivotal linkage between the great Sūfī masters, such as al-Jili and Ibnu ‘Arabi, and their influence on the development of Sufism in the Malay World. This thesis also contains some references to Malay Sūfī texts, indicating the importance of the Arabic and Malay Arabic languages to understanding Malay Sufism.28

The third body of work is Azyumardi Azra’s study of Muslim scholar networks in the Malay world in the 17th _{and 18}th _{centuries. Azra’s exploration of} the importance of the networks of Muslim scholars in the Malay world provides a foundation for this period, especially in terms of understanding Islamic intellectual discourse in the Malay world in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the

26 _{Ibid., 26.}

27 _{Ibid., 27.}

28 _{A.H. Johns, Malay Sufism, as Illustrated in an Anonymous Collection of Seventeenth}

Century Tracts ( London: Journal of the Malayan Branch royal Asiatic Society, vol. XXX, Part 2, August, no. 178, Printed for the MBRAS by the Alden Press ( Oxford ) Ltd. Oxford, 1957 ) .

relations between masters and students.29 Moreover, Azra’s work is as important source for conducting further study on Sufism and the revival of Islamic movements in Malay world.

The fourth work is Syeikh Yusuf al-Taj al Maqassari by Nabilah Lubis. This thesis emphasizes philological study, and is therefore an exploration of the content of the text (i.e. Zubdat al-asrār). Lubis also offers a brief explanation of the life and works of Syeikh Yusuf as a Sūfī. Lubis states that her aim is only to introduce the text of Zubdat al-asrār by giving the translation, without corrupting it.30 As a philological study, Lubis’ work has opened the door for further studies on philology and the possibility of elevating the study of philological hermeneutics to a primary source of evidence in discussing the subject of this thesis.

In line with the study of the Islamic sciences, a prominent Muslim sociologist, Abdurrahman ibnu Khaldun (1332-1406), commented on the importance of the philological aspects of the Arabic language such as grammar, literature and linguistics; these are required to understand the two sources (Qur’ān and Hadīth) which are the foundation of Sharī’ah (Islamic law). In addition to that, either Sufism (the inner side of Islamic law) or Fīqh (the outer side of

29 _{Azyumardi Azra, The Origins of Islamic Reformism in Southeast Asia, Networks of}

Malay Indonesian and Middle Eastern “Ulama” in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries ( Honolulu: Allen & Unwin and University of Hawai’i Press, 2004 ) . See also A.H Johns, Friends in Grace: Ibrahim al-Kurani and ‘Abd al-Ra’uf al-Singkeli in S. Udin (ed.) Spectrum: Essays Presented to Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana ( Jakarta: Dian Rakyat, 1978 ) .

30 _{Nabilah Lubis, Syekh Yusuf al-Taj Al-Makasari, Menyingkap Segala Rahasia ( Jakarta:}

Islamic law) are the products of Islamic law which have their basis in both sources, the Qur’ān and the Hadīth.31

The necessity of philological or hermeneutical study lies in its emphasis on understanding the meaning of the language in the text, and viewing language as a set of symbols used to deliver a message. Failure to understand the meaning of the language used in a text can result in misunderstanding the message the text delivers. Therefore, the social and cultural backgrounds, as well as the philosophical thought of the writers of the texts become extremely important.32

31 _{Abdurrahman ibnu Khaldun, Muqaddimah ( Prologomena ), Dar al-Ihyā al-Kutub al-}

Arabiyyah ( Cairo: Isa al-Babi al-Halabi wa Shirkah, 1960 ) , 293.

32 _{Further precious explanation on the importance of the philological studies for further}

research on social and religious sciences see, al-Imam Abu Hamid Muhammad ibnu Muhammad al-Ghazali, Mi’yārul Ilmi Fī Fann al-Mantiq (The standard of science in the art of logic), edited by Husaini Sharrarah (Lebanon: Bairut, 1964) . Maqāsid al-Falāsifah, (The Goal of Philosophy)

edited by Sulayman Dunya, Dar al-Ma’ārif, Egypt 1961, Tahāfut al-Falāsifah (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), A parallel English-Arabic text, translated introduced and annotated by Michael E.Marmura (Utah, USA: Brigham Young University Press, Provo, 1997) . Ludwig Wittgenstein,

Tractatus, Logico Philosophicus, English translation by C.K.Ogden (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1990) . Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophische Untersuchungen, Philosophical Investigations, English translation by G.E.M. Anscombe (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1968) . Ernest Cassirer,

Language and Myth, translated by Susane K. Langer, Dover publication 1946. Susane K. Langer,

On Cassier theory of language and myth, 381-400, in The Philosophy of Ernst Cassirer, edited by Paul Arthur Schilpp (USA: The Library of Living Philosophers, 1949) . Willbur Marshall Urbon,

Language and Reality, The Philosophy of language and the principle of symbolism (Great Britain: George Allen and Unwin, 1939) . Alfred Korzybski, Science and Sanity, An introduction to non- Aristotelian systems and general semantics (USA: The Colonial Press, Clinton, 1958) , especially 7-85. Adam Schaff, Introduction to Semantics, translated from Polish by Algierd Wojtasiewicz ( Poland: Pergoman Press, 1962) . Edward Said, Orientalism, Western Conceptions of the Orient

(England: Penguin Books, 1995) , especially, 113-149. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things An Archeology of the Human science (New York: Vintage Books, 1994) , 250-300. L. Jonathan Cohen, The diversity of Meaning (London: Methoen & Co, 1962) . C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards,

A study of language upon the thought and the science of symbolism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1949) . Muhammed Arkoen, Pour un critique de la raison Islamique, Indonesian translation by Rahayu S. Hidayat, Nalar Islami dan Nalar Modern, berbagai tantangan dan jalan baru

(Jakarta: INIS, 1994) . Virginia Matheson Hooker, Tuhfat al-Nafīs (Precious gift), Sejarah Melayu Islam, Malay translation by Fauzi Basri (Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Kementrian Pendidikan Malaysia, 1991) . Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, The Mysticism of Hamzah Fansūri (Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press, 1970) . Ian Proud Foot, The Politics of Malay Philology (Kuala Lumpur: Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, MBRAS, vol. LXXVI, part 1, 2003, KDN PP 1841/3/2003-ISSN 0128-5483, June, 2003) . Hans Gorge Gadamer, Truth and Method, second revised edition, translation revised by Joel Weinsheimer and Donald G.Marshall ( New York: Crossroad Publishing Corporation, 1989 ) . Nasr Abu Zayd. Nasr Abu Zayd writes some books about hermeneutical studies for interpreting Qur’ān such as first, Isykaliyyāt al Qirā’ah wa Aliyāt at-Ta’wīl, Indonesian translation by Muhammad Mansur and Khorian Nahdliyin, ICIP, International Center for Islam and Pluralism, 2004. Second. Al-Tafkīr fi al-Zamān al- Takfīr, Diddu al Jahli wa al-Zayfi wa al Khurafāti (Cairo,

Hermeneutic study as a branch of the study of a language is very important as one of the tools for interpreting the Qur’ān.33 _{In Islamic history, two rival schools of} grammar - which were known as the Basra represented by the great grammarian Sibawayh (d.180/796 A.D.); and the Kūfan which was represented by al Farra’ (d.207/822. A.D.) - were important factors underlying the varieties of Quranic exegesis in Islamic history.34 One example is a dispute between al-Ghazali (known as an Islamic theologian) and Ibnu Rushd (known as an Islamic philosopher) when discussing the character and the essence of God the Creator. The basis of the dispute was semantic logic, since a theologian’s understanding of the Arabic terms will differ from that of a philosopher.35

Egypt: Maktabah Madbuli, 2005) . Third, Al-Nass as-Sulthah, al-Haqīqah, Indonesian translation by Sunarwoto Dema (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2003) . Fourth, Al-Ittijāh Al-Aqlī fī Al-Tafsīr: Dirāsah fi Qadhiyyāt Al-Majāz fī Al-Qur’ān ‘inda Al-Mu’tazilah, Indonesian translation by Abdurrahman Kasdi and Hamka Hasan (Bandung: Penerbit Mizan, 2003) . Fifth, Naqd al-Khitāb ad-Dīnī, Indonesian translation by Khoiron Nahdiyyin (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2003) . Nabilah Lubis, Studi Naskah dan Metode Penelitian Filologi in Jurnal Adabiyah, Media Dialog Ilmu-Ilmu Keislaman yang berlatar keadaban (Ujung Pandang: Fakultas Adab IAIN Ujung Pandang. Edisi II tahun 1998) , 23-30. For further explanation about the two great schools of grammar in the early Islamic history which are known as the the Basrah school and that of Kufa school see Naphtali Kinberg,

Mu’jam Musthalahāt al Farrā’ fi Kitābi Ma’ānī al Qur’ān Arabi-Inklīsī, Masfū’un Bishawāhid Kathirah wa Ta’rifat wa Mulāhadzāt bil Inkliziyyah, A Lexicon of Farrā’terminology in His Qur’ān commentary with full Definitons, English summaries and extensive citations ( Leiden, New York, Koln: E.j. Brill, 1996 ) .

33 _{Badruddin Muhammad Ibnu Abdillah al-Zarkasyi, al Burhān fī Ulūmil Qur’ān, vol.1 of}

4 ( Bairut, Libanon: Dar el-Fikr, 1988 ) , 33-38. In Arabic, the term hermeneutic has two meanings: Tafsir and Ta’wil. For this see Munir Baalbaki and Rohi Baalbaki, al-Mawred

Dictionary, English-Arabic and Arabic – English ( Bairut, Lebanon: Dar-el-Ilm lilmalāyīn, 2005) , 424. Both Tafsir and Ta’wil are the ways to understand the sacred texts in Islam, Qur’ān and Hadīth.

34 _{Naphtali Kinberg, Mu’jam Musthalahāt al Farrā’ fi Kitābi Ma’ānī al Qur’ān Arabi-}

Inklīsī, Masfū’un Bishawāhid Kathirah wa Ta’rifat wa Mulāhadzāt bil Inkliziyyah, A Lexicon of Farrā’terminology in His Qur’ān commentary with full Definitons, English summaries and extensive citations (Leiden, New York, Koln: E.j. Brill, 1996 ) , 9. See also Muhammad Ata al Sid, The Hermeneutical problem of the Qur’ān Islamic History, Indonesian translation by Ilham B. Saenong ( Jakarta: Teraju Mizan, Republika, 2004 ) . Regarding the importance and the role of language studies in interpreting religious texts in Islam see also George A. Maqdisi, The Rise of Humanism in Classical Islam and The Christian West, Indonesian translation by A.Syamsu Rizal and Nur Hidayah ( Jakarta: Serambi Ilmu Semesta, 2005 ) , 183-199.

35 _{To have a good explanation about the dispute, see Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Tahāfut al-}

As the previous section suggests, the importance of the study of hermeneutics in social and religious science lies in its examination of symbols embedded in the meanings of the words and language used in the texts. The Qur’ān is also steeped in symbols which are said to affect the poems of some Sūfīs . For example, the verse

Allahu nūrussamāwāti wal ardi kamatsali nūrihī kamishkātin fīhā misbāhun almisbāhu fīzzujājatin azzujājatu kaannaha kaukabun dūriyyun yūqadu min syajaratin mubārakatin zaytūnatin la syarqiyyatin walā gharbiyyatin yakādu zaytuhā yudlīu walau lam tamsashu nārun. Nūrun ala nūrin yahdillāhu linūrihi man yasyā’u wayadlribullāhul amtsāla linnāsi wAllahu bikulli syai’in Alīm.36

Allah is the Light Of the heavens and the earth. The parable of His Light is as if there were a Niche And within it a Lamp: The Lamp Enclosed in Glass; The glass as it were A brilliant star: Lit from a blessed Tree, An Olive, nether of the East Nor of the West, Whose Oil is well-nigh Luminous, Though fire scarce touched it: Light upon Light! Allah doth set forth Parables For men: and Allah doth know all things.

One example is the poem of al Hallaj in his work Tawāsin.37 These are the symbols in the Qur’an which eventually affect the poems of some Sūfīs . The symbols enrich the meaning of the text. In Chinese literary tradition, for example, the use of symbols is very important for the so-called economization of

University Press, 1997 ) and Tahāfut al Tahāfut (the incoherence of the incoherence). Al-Ghazālī’s writing is actually addressed to the philosophers of his age. Whereas Ibnu Rushd who was born in 1186 A.D., 75 years after al-Ghazali’s death in 1111A.D., addressed his writing to al-Ghazali’s.

36 _{Abdullah Yusuf ‘Ali, The Holy Qur’an , Text, Translation and Commentary, 24:35 (}

Maryland, USA: Amana Corporation, Brentwood, 1989 ) , 875. The capitalization of the translation is quoted as precise as in Yusuf ‘Ali’s

37 _{Hussain bin Mansūr al Hallaj, Kitab Tawāsin Tāsin in book of Luminious Form,}

English translation under the title Ana al-Haqq Reconsidered with a translation of Kitāb al- Tawāsin by Husain bin Mansur al Hallaj, by Gilani Kamran ( Lahore: Naqsh-e-Awwal Kitab Ghar, 1977 ) , 55-60.

meaning.38 Thus the language of symbols in hermeneutic study according to Gadamer is to make it easier to reveal the original meaning.39

In Sūfī tradition, the use of symbols is closely related to the esoteric tradition which stresses the deeper meaning of the text. Sūfī poetry uses symbols to express the truth and the beauty of God in relation to human understanding of the sacred texts from which the awareness of being the servant of God stem.40

The hermeneutic method is one of the tools for understanding the deeper