IDENTIFICACIÓN, DESCRIPCIÓN Y EVALUACIÓN DE LOS IMPACTOS AMBIENTALES

There is a considerable number of studies on the use of indigenous languages in the media. As mentioned earlier, scholars agree that the media are not doing enough to produce content in local languages (Hachipola, 1998; Mabaso, 2006; Magwa, 2008; Nyika, 2008; Maseko and Ndlovu, 2015). These scholars and others agree that the marginalisation of the small linguistic communities dates back to the colonial era and at independence the African governments did very little to redress the situation. Hachipola (1998) examines the situation of minority languages in Zimbabwe. He also discusses the historical origins and geographical location of the small linguistic communities in Zimbabwe. Hachipola (1998) also analyses the general language situation, use of minority languages in education and published material in these languages. However, the media’s involvement in upholding the minority languages is overlooked. Hachipola (1998) just mentions the use of different languages in the media. There is not much discussion on the use of minority languages in the media. Furthermore, Nyika (2007) analyses Zimbabwe’s language scenario and his emphasis is on the development and promotion of linguistic rights. He overlooks the potential of the media in enhancing these rights. His work concentrates on how different human rights groups are involved in assisting the marginalised people in their plight for minority language conservation.

Like Hachipola (1998) and Nyika (2007), Ndhlovu (2009) explores the language situation in the country but he takes it from a nation building perspective. His work includes the role of the media in nation building and his research findings indicate that National FM allocates too little air time to small languages. Ndawana and Muromo (2012) and Maseko and Ndlovu (2013) also established that National FM mainly broadcasts in Shona and Ndebele. It does not abide by its basic mandate of broadcasting for small linguistic communities. In the same vein, Mabika and Salawu (2014) also found out that National FM does not give enough air play to the small linguistic communities. Nyika (2007) also discusses the lack of minority languages content in the print media. His research established that there are no newspapers that are written in any of the minority languages. Most of the newspapers in

Zimbabwe are written in English with only one in Shona (Kwayedza) and one in Ndebele (Umthunywa). Kwayedza does not contain any article written in the minority languages from Mashonaland and Manicaland where Shona related minority languages are dominant. Umthunywa has occasional Tonga and Kalanga inserts. Maseko and Ndlovu (2013) concur with Nyika (2007) on the complaint that African indigenous languages are overshadowed by foreign languages. Maseko and Ndlovu (2013) also agree with Nyika (2007), Ndhlovu (2007) and others that it is not only English that dominate the media, education and other sectors but also Shona and Ndebele.

The question of Shona domination is a prickly issue among some scholars who feel that the Ndebele have been side-lined by the Shona even during the armed struggle. Muzondiya and Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2007), Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2009), Mhlanga (2009) and others agree that the Shona have always been exploiting the Ndebele. In line with this, Nyagumbo (1997) and Sithole (1999) also complained about how the Manyika have been side-lined by the Zezuru and Karanga from the liberation war to the present. Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2000) and Sithole (1999) discuss the divisions among the Ndebele-aligned and Shona-aligned tribes respectively. These scholars do not examine the pre-colonial era when the Ndebele exploited the Shona through the payment of taxes. The scholars also overlooked the slavery that took place when the Shona had failed to pay the taxes. Furthermore, these scholars do not consider the state of other small linguistic communities like the Tswawo/Khoisan and Nambya. It can be concluded that these are writing from an activist perspective. All these scholars are concerned with larger communities and the issue of small linguistic communities is not valorised.

Many scholars have researched on indigenous languages and their place in human development. Some scholars agree that the use of these languages in education is a milestone towards education for all the people of Zimbabwe (Viriri, 2003; Magwa, 2008; Makoni, Makoni and Nyika 2008; Makoni, 2011etc). They analyse the language situation in relation to the education system. They do not explore the role of the media in socio-economic development. On one hand, this could be attributed to the fact that these academics are grounded in the education sector. On the other hand, it can be argued that at that moment there was need to have people who could read and write in those languages. It would then be possible to have these languages being used in the media. A UNESCO (2012) special edition on local language radio programming emphasises the importance of writing radio programmes in local

languages. It is then vital to promote minority languages education concurrently with the media or to have education first then the media later.

There is a rich body of literature which advocates for the promotion of indigenous languages. As discussed earlier, radio is the most flexible and popular medium in Africa (Hungbo, 2008; Myers, 2009; Mano, 2011). Radio studies in Zimbabwe have concentrated on music, programmes in indigenous languages and general talk shows. There is not much research on radio production and content for small linguistic communities. As a starting point, Scannell (2001) established that local musicians were complaining that radio stations were playing more foreign music than local. It is not stated whether this local music was in English or in vernacular. There is no reference to minority languages in this study. It can be argued that what was crucial at that time was the inclusion of local music. Mano (2009) concurs with Scannell (2001) when he realised that local audiences enjoyed listening to local music. However, Mano’s (2009) study only examines the popularity of local music in Shona and Ndebele. It does not go further to look at minority languages. This could be because there was not much in terms of music in those languages. Another shortfall in Mano’s (2009) study is that he only analysed scheduling of music on Radio Zimbabwe yet National FMalso broadcasts in local languages.

For Mano (2004) radio has managed to renegotiate the traditional court (dare) –public sphere– through a discussion of family problems. Mano (2004) examines a Shona programme that discusses domestic problems (Chakafukidza Dzimba Matenga) on Radio Zimbabwe but does not look at its Ndebele equivalent (Ihlupo Zalamuhla). National FM was already operational at that time but there is no research that specifically analyses its content or production activities like what Mano (2004, 2005, and 2006) did for Radio Zimbabwe. This could be attributed to the fact that it was and is not as popular as Radio Zimbabwe. Recently, Mabika and Salawu (2014) also established that the four PSB radio stations in Zimbabwe broadcast mainly in English, Shona and Ndebele. They lament the fact that National FM, whose mandate is to broadcast for the small linguistic communities, also broadcasts mainly in Shona and Ndebele.

In most societies women and minority groups are marginalised. The media should play a pivotal role in ensuring that these people’s rights are developed and promoted. Ndawana (2012) explored the

fostering of gender equality on Radio Zimbabwe and National FM. This research realised that these programmes are only broadcast in Shona and Ndebele. National FM does not have programmes on gender equality that are broadcast in minority languages. Instead of promoting minority languages, National FM continues to cater for Shona and Ndebele which are already catered for by Radio Zimbabwe. This study underlines the necessity to find out why National FM has no such programmes in minority languages. Furthermore, Ndawana and Muromo (2012) also established that the air time allocated for minority languages is very minimal. In an earlier study, Mano (2006) had also realised that the competence of a single station to adequately broadcast in all ethnic languages in a multilingual and multicultural nation such as Zimbabwe is a canard. In the same way, Ndlovu (2004:139-140) bewails the way minority languages are treated in the Zimbabwe broadcasting media. He argues:

While NFM is meant to cater for minority languages that include Doma, Chikunda, Chewa, Yao, Hwesa, Barwe, Venda, Sotho, Kalanga, Shangani, Tonga, Xhosa and Tshwawo, Shona and Ndebele programmes take up most of the airtime. - - - Minority groups are always unfairly left out of the national agenda.

All the scholars cited above agree that the other dispute is that the concerns discussed in those few minutes are not directly related to these small linguistic communities. They are rather ordinary issuesit is only their languages used to discuss very abstract topics. The previous studies just analyse the content without exploring the forces and the processes behind the production of that content. This study digs deeper to find out how these programmes are produced and it also analyses the content.

Mabika and Salawu (2014) argue that English should also be used on National FM and Radio Zimbabwe. They point out that this is necessary to promote globalisation. Like all studies on the use of minority languages, their research also established that not much minority language content is broadcast on National FM. Shona and Ndebele, with a bit of code switching to English, are prevalent on these radio stations. All these studies are related to this research as they lay a foundation for its undertaking. Mumpande (2006) argues that minority language listeners have become very active participants in programmes which are broadcast in their own languages and it is one of the objectives of this study to find out how the audiences are involved in content production.