MEDIDAS PREVENTIVAS Y DE MITIGACIÓN DE LOS IMPACTOS AMBIENTALES

Accurate statistics on the language situation in Zimbabwe are difficult to come by. The 2012 census only has information about the Shona and Ndebele. This study relies on the information provided by

Hachipola (1998), Magwa (2008) and Ndlovu (2009). Although Magwa (2008) used information from Fortune (1959) and Hachipola (1998), he also carried surveys to find out statistical data on the language situation in Zimbabwe. Language researchers agree that the precise figure of indigenous languages spoken in Zimbabwe is not clear although most approximations range from 14 to 17 (Hachipola, 1998; Viriri, 2003; Magwa, 2008 and Ndlovu (2009). Ndlovu (2009) agrees with Magwa (2008) who argues that it is difficult to know the exact number of minority languages in Zimbabwe “… largely because sociolinguists are often not agreed on whether certain varieties are fully-fledged languages or regional varieties (dialects) of recognised languages” (Ndlovu, 2009:49).

According to Magwa (2008) the following languages are spoken in Zimbabwe: 1. English 2. Shona 3. Ndebele 4. Sotho 5. Shangaani 6. Tonga 7. Venda

8. Doma9. Sena10. Tswana11. Xhosa 12. Tshwawo13. Kunda14. Nyanja/Chewa15. Hindi16. French

17. Portuguese 18. Italian 19. Afrikaans 20. Greek

Magwa (2008) discussed 20 languages and for indigenous languages he left out Barwe, Hwesa, Kalanga, Ndau and Nambya. As said earlier, he argues that these languages are Shona dialects just like Zezuru, Karanga, Manyika and Ndau. While Magwa (2008) discusses all languages that are spoken in Zimbabwe, Hachipola (1998) and Ndlovu (2009) examine minority languages that are found in Zimbabwe. This study explores the indigenous languages that are broadcast on National FM. It is not concerned with the controversies surrounding issues to do with whether it is a language or a dialect. Hachipola (1998) and Ndlovu (2009) agree that there are 16 minority languages which are:

1. Kalanga 2. Sotho 3. Tonga 4. Tonga Mudzi 5. Nambya 6. Venda 7. Shangani/Tsonga 8. Chikunda 9. Hwesa 10. Barwe 11. Chikunda/Sena 12 Doma 13. Xhosa 14. Tshwawo/Khoisan 15. Tswana 16. Chewa/Nyanja

Scholars agree that except for Chewa and Xhosa all of these minority languages are found in the border areas where they share these languages with neighbours. These areas have radio transmission problems and this affects both production and reception of National FM programmes.

The current Zimbabwe National Constitution has 16 officially recognised languages which are:

1. English 2. Shona 3. Ndebele 4. Kalanga 5. Tonga 6. Shangani 7. Venda 8. Nambya 9. Chewa 10. Chibarwe

National FM does not broadcast in all the official languages and at the same time it broadcasts in some languages which are not officially recognised. National FM broadcasts in the following languages:

1. Shona 2. Ndebele 3. Barwe 4. Chewa 5. Chikunda 6. Doma 7. Hwesa 8. Kalanga 9. Nambya 10. Ndau 11. Shangani 12. Sotho 13. Tonga 14. Tswana 15. Hwesa 16. Venda 17. Yao 18. Xhosa

Although Shona and Ndebele are broadcast on National FM, they do not belong to the minority languages. Shona is the most widely spoken and it is spoken by more than 75 percent of the population. Ndebele is second in popularity and is spoken by 16 percent of Zimbabweans. The other indigenous languages constitute just above eight percent and non-African languages are less than one percent. While Hachipola (1998) and Magwa (2008) categorise Barwe, Hwesa, Kalanga and Nambya as Shona dialects, this study regards them as full languages as stated in the Zimbabwean constitution. Non- African languages are not discussed in this thesis. The following paragraphs briefly discuss each of the languages and the geographical location of each of the languages. The information relating to these minority languages is derived from Hachipola (1998), Magwa (2008), Ndlovu (2009) and others who contributed in individual languages.

Barwe

Barwe is largely spoken in Mozambique and there are only a few speakers of this language in Zimbabwe. The Zimbabwean Constitution recognises this language as an official language and in the constitution it is called Chibarwe. These speakers are found mainly along Zimbabwe’s border with Mozambique. They are found in Manicaland’s Nyanga district in Nyamaropa and Nyakomba. They are also found in Mashonaland East in Mudzi district together with the Hwesa people. There is little published material on Barwe and it has never been taught in schools. While Magwa (2008) argues that Barwe is a Shona dialect, this study treats Barwe as a language for two main reasons. The first one pertains to the fact that some scholars (Hachipola, (1998) and Ndhlovu (2009) regard it as a language. The other factor is that at National FM Barwe is taken as a language which has its own programmes and time slots. Like all other languages, it is very difficult to ascertain the exact number of Barwe people in Zimbabwe. This can also be attributed to the fact that Barwe people tend to speak languages of the people of the places they would have moved into. In Mudzi the Barwe people also speak Hwesa and in Manicaland they speak Manyika. The Barwe people have an association (Barwe Language Association) that promotes its use but it is not as active as the ones for the Shangani, Tonga, Kalanga or Nambya people.

Chewa

Chewa is one of the official languages in Zimbabwe. Unlike other minority groups, the Chewa people have no specific geographical location and they do not form any community in any area in Zimbabwe. They came into the country during the colonial era and the federation to look for any kind of job that was available. They are mainly found in mining towns and farming areas. They have also settled in some urban areas like Harare and Bulawayo and are scattered all over the country. During the colonial era, Chewa was taught at primary school but since the attainment of independence it is no longer taught at any level (Hachipola 1998; Makoni, 2011). Scholars argue that this could be because Chewa is considered to be a foreign language and other minority languages in the same class (Chikunda, Doma and Yao) are also not in the curriculum. Hachipola (1998), Viriri (2003) and Makoni (2011) however, posit that re-introducing Chewa into the school curriculum might be cumbersome as the speakers are scattered all over the country. Like all speakers of minority languages in Zimbabwe, the population of the Chewa people is very difficult to measure.

Chikunda

Like the Barwe, the majority of the Chikunda people are found in Mozambique. They are also found in Zambia and in Zimbabwe they are found in Mashonaland West, in Guruve along the Zambezi valley together with the Doma and Korekore. The Chikunda people are also called Kunda people or Achikunda. Chikunda people speak Korekore in public and Chikunda in private. Hachipola (1998) is of the view that the Chikunda people have an inferiority complex and feel ashamed of themselves like other minority language speakers. This has resulted in them not talking in Chikunda in public. They also live together with the Karanga and the Zezuru. Chikunda is not taught at school and the schools in this area only teach Shona as a local language. There are no publications for Zimbabwean Chikunda and like other minority languages, statistics regarding the speakers are difficult to establish. Chikunda people have no vibrant cultural or language association.

Doma

There are several versions of the origins of the Doma people. Some say they came from Mozambique and others say they originated from the Korekore of Zimbabwe. Doma people are found in Mashonaland West, specifically in Kanyemba. They live a nomadic lifestyle. Previous research indicates that the Doma language has the least number of speakers among Zimbabwe’s minority groups. The Doma language has not been studied and no school has ever taught Doma. While scholars agree that Doma has the least number of speakers, they do not agree on the exact numbers of the

speakers. Like other minority groups who live in remote areas of Zimbabwe, the Doma people are regarded as some of the poorest people in the country. Like Chikunda people, they do not have an active language or cultural group.

Hwesa

This language is spoken by people who live in Nyanga district, Manicaland province in Zimbabwe. Their area is called Hwesaland and it shares its borders with other small linguistic communities like the Barwe and Manyika. Like the Barwe, the Chikunda and the Doma, the Hwesa people appear to be ashamed of their language. In public they speak Manyika and Zezuru which are both Shona dialects. According to Hachipola (1998), Hwesaland consists of both Barwe and Hwesa people. He goes further to say that these people speak more Hwesa than Barwe. There are no Hwesa publications and it has never been taught in schools and there are no prospects of it being taught. The schools in the area use Shona as a local language, just like other areas where there are small linguistic communities. Statistics for the Hwesa population are also hard to determine just like those of other minority languages. Hachipola (1998) categorises Hwesa under dying languages together with languages of other small linguistic communities. Hwesa speakers, like other indigenous language speakers, are also interested in promoting the use of their language. They formed an association called Hwesa Cultural Association which, like TOLACO, advocates for the use of Hwesa in education and other sectors. Hwesa is not an officially recognised language in Zimbabwe but it is broadcast on National FM.

Kalanga

While Hachipola (1998) and Magwa (2008) classify Kalanga as a Shona dialect, this study regards it as an independent language due to the reasons discussed in the Barwe section. Kalanga is a legitimately accepted language in the Zimbabwean Constitution. Kalanga people are found in Botswana and Zimbabwe. In Zimbabwe, they are located in Matabeleland South in Bulilima, Mangwe, Nyamandlovu, Kezi, Matobo districts and in Matabeleland North in Tsholotsho district. As in the case with other small linguistic communities, it is hard to determine the number of people who speak this language. The Kalanga people in Zimbabwe also speak Ndebele as it is the main indigenous language that is predominant in the province. Kalanga was taught up to Standard Six at some stage during the colonial era before it was discontinued. After independence it was introduced up to Grade Three and gradually extended up to O’Level. There is scarce literature in Kalanga and teachers who teach this language translate most of the reading and teaching material from Ndebele to Kalanga. They also make

some translations from English to Kalanga. Like Venda and Tonga, Kalanga people have been active in promoting the use of their language. Speakers of these three languages formed an association called VETOKA Languages and Cultural Promotion Society but it did not stay for long. It was meant to promote these languages in the education sector and they formed VETOKA Publishing Company to produce literature in their languages. The organisation collapsed in 1985 and, it is argued, because of lack of both capital and human resources among other factors (Nyika, 2007; Makoni 2011). Kalanga also belongs to Zimbabwe Indigenous Languages Promotion Association (ZILPA), a group that advocates for the use of indigenous languages. The association is made up of Kalanga, Nambya, Shangani, Sotho, Tonga and Venda. The association was formed in 2001 and is mainly concerned with the use of their languages in the education sector.

Khoisan (Tshwawo)

The population of Khoisan or Tshawo people in Zimbabwe is very small. They are located in Matabeleland North in Tshlotsho alongside the Kalanga and the Ndebele. They are also found in smaller numbers in Matabeleland South in Bulilima and Mangwe. According to Hachipola (1998), the Khoisan people claim that they are related to the nomadic Basarwa people of Botswana, Namibia and Zambia. Some Khoisan people are still nomadic while others have settled into permanent homes. Their language is Tshwawo and it is officially recognised in the Zimbabwean Constitution. The Khoisan prefer to be called Bakhwa and Khoisan is an anthropological name which describes a Southern African group of people that survived on hunting and gathering food (Hachipola, 1998). The children of those who have settled go to school and learn Ndebele. There are no Tshwawo publications or literature in Khoisan and the language is not taught in any school. Like other minority languages, it is also difficult to ascertain the actual number of the Khoisan people who live in Zimbabwe. This is also worsened by the fact that the Khoisan are rovers. They do not have an organisation that campaigns for the promotion of their language and culture. Khoisan is also broadcast on Nattional FM.

Nambya

Although scholars like Doke (1931), Hachipola (1998) and Magwa (2008) regard Nambya as a Karanga (Shona dialect), in this study it is regarded as a stand-alone language. Nambya is an official language in Zimbabwe. Nambya people are mostly found in Hwange district where they live together with the Chewa, Tonga and Ndebele. They are also found in Victoria Falls but in small numbers. The Nambya are active in the preservation of their language and have an association called Nambya

Cultural Association. This association advocates for the inclusion of Nambya in the school curriculum and is Nambya is taught at primary school level up to Grade Seven. A few secondary schools in Hwange teach Nambya. Nambya is part of (ZILPA) since its formation in 2001(See Kalanga section). Just like other minority groups, it is very hard to establish the exact number of Nambya speakers both in Hwange and Victoria Falls. According to Hachipola (1998), when the Nambya people arrived in Hwange they found the Tonga already occupying the area.

Ndau

Ndau is considered an official language in the Zimbabwean Constitution although Hachipola (1998) and Magwa (2008) regard it as a Shona dialect. It is also considered as a language on National FM where there is a Ndau presenter and programmes that are specifically broadcast in Ndau. The Ndau people are located in Chipinge, Chimanimani, Nyanga and parts of Chiredzi. Ndau people are also found in Mozambique. They claim that they are of Nguni origin from South Africa and are related to the Tsonga (Shangani in Zimbabwe). Like all minority languages, it is difficult to establish the exact number of Ndau speakers in Zimbabwe. Ndau is not taught in any school and there are no publications or literature in the Ndau language. The Ndau people have a vigorous association that promotes the elevation of Ndau language and culture. They have a Facebook page called Rekete Chindau -Leave a

Legacy where they encourage one another to promote their language and culture.

Shangaani (Tsonga)

This language is one of Zimbabwe’s 16 official languages and it is also spoken in Mozambique, South Africa and a few other speakers are found in Swaziland. In South Africa and Mozambique, the language is called Tsonga. In Zimbabwe, the Shangani-speaking people are located in Masvingo province in Chiredzi district together with Karanga (a Shona dialect) people. There are also a few Shangani people who moved to Mwenezi and Zaka to give way to sugar plantations. The Shangani are also found in Beitbridge but in small numbers. As with all other minority languages in Zimbabwe, it is difficult to get correct data on the number of Shangani speakers.

Shangani is taught at school up to O’Level and even at tertiary education at Great Zimbabwe University. Like Tonga and Nambya, Shangani has an association that advocates for the upliftment and promotion of the language. The association is called Gaza Cultural Association and it helps in organising material for teaching of Shangani in schools. Shangani speakers are also part of ZILPA (See Kalanga section). Like other minority language speakers, the Shangani complain about the dominance of Shona in the areas they live in and some schools still teach Shona instead of Shangani.

Sotho

The Sotho people originated from Lesotho, South Africa and Botswana and in Zimbabwe they are located in Matabeleland South in Gwanda district, specifically in Manama. They are also found in Kezi district, Beitbridge, Plumtree and a few in Masvingo. In Matabeleland they stay among the Tswana and the Ndebele and this has led them to speak all these languages. Sotho is now an official language in Zimbabwe but most of the speakers use Ndebele as it used to be the only official indigenous language. Sotho was taught up to Standard Six during the colonial era. At independence, schools stopped teaching the language but it was later revived in the school curriculum. It is still taught in schools with publications from outside the country especially Lesotho as the Sotho that is spoken in Zimbabwe is similar to that spoken in Lesotho. Presently, Sotho is taught up to Grade Seven and some secondary schools are also teaching it. Sotho speakers are part of ZILPA and the inclusion of Sotho at school may be attributed to the active participation of ZILPA (See Kalanga section). The language is related to Tswana and most Sotho speakers also speak Tswana. Like other minority languages, it is not easy to establish the exact number of Sotho speakers.

Tonga

This is one of the languages whose speakers advocate for the promotion of the language in Zimbabwe. It is an official language which is now taught up to O’Level. The Tonga people are also found in Namibia, Botswana, Malawi and Zambia. In Zimbabwe, Tonga has two versions which are Tonga itself and another one called Mudzi-Tonga, which is spoken in Mudzi district. The Tonga spoken in Mudzi is different from the Tonga that is spoken in other areas. As in the case of all minority languages, the accurate figure of people who speak the Tonga language is Zimbabwe is not known. These people are found in many areas in Zimbabwe. They are found in Gokwe district in the Midlands Province alongside the Shona. They are also found in Mashonaland West province in Chirundu and in Kariba district, particularly in Omay and Nyaminyami (Kadenge, 2010). Hwange and Victoria Falls districts in Matabeleland North are places where the Tonga people also reside. There are also a few Tonga people found in Mt Darwin, Mashonaland Central, together with the Korekore people. The majority of the Tonga are located in Binga. Some Tonga people can also speak Shona. In Kariba they live together with the Korekore while in Hwange and Victoria Falls they live alongside the Chewa, Nambya and Ndebele. In the colonial era Tonga was taught up to Standard Six in some schools in Hwange and Victoria Falls. The books and teachers were from Zambia and before the UDI in Rhodesia by the then Prime Minister Ian Smith, teachers from Zambia were not regarded as foreigners. At some

time in the colonial era Shona was the official indigenous language taught in schools. Later Ndebele became an official indigenous language and was taught in schools until 2001 when Tonga was taught up to Grade Three. In 2005 it was taught up to Grade Seven then O’Level in 2015. As in the case with Kalanga, Nambya and Shangani, Tonga has a vibrant association that has gone a long way in promoting the use of the language up to tertiary education. Nyika (2007) specifically studied how organisations are promoting language rights in Zimbabwe. He studied the efforts made by organisations like Zimbabwe Indigenous Languages Promotion Association, Tonga Language and Cultural Association or Tonga Language Committee (TOLAKO). Tonga has been advanced to the