Importancia de lo Psicológico en la Configuración de la Obra

ABSTRACT

The objective of the article is to discuss the philosophical views on security and how they influenced the modern security sciences. The issues of security, defence, war and the conditions of peace were under the scrutiny of eminent thinkers since the times of Ancient Greece and Rome. One of the greatest Greek philosophers who engaged issues of security was Plato and in the Roman philosophy Cicero. The renaissance philosophers influenced the modern understanding of security to a significant degree. Among them was Niccolo Machiavelli. The humanists are Thomas Moore, Thomasso Campanella and Francis Bacon. In the 18th century dealed by ideas of security Thomas Hobbes and Hugo Grotius. The issues of security, war and peace were explored by the great thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment. One of them was Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In the philosophy of German Enlightenment the works of Immanuel Kant (1724-1805) bear special significance.

Key words: development of security sciences, Plato, Cicero, Machiavelli, Moore, Bacon,

Campanella, Kant

The academic field of "security sciences" was included in the domain of social sciences in Poland by the Minister's of Science and Higher Education regulation of August 8 2011 considering the branches of sciences and arts and scientific and artistic disciplines (Appendix to the regulation) along with 8 other sciences (national defence, media, political science, public policy, social communication, pedagogy, psychology and sociology). It is therefore a very "young" academic discipline.

The security sciences, which are developing continually, are under the influence of the methodological and theoretical groundwork of many other sciences, among them philosophy, especially the philosophy of security.

The notion of "philosophy of security" was brought up during the VI Polish Philosophical Gathering in Toruń in September 1995. This philosophy transcends both the pre-existing "philosophy of peace" and "philosophy of war". The philosophy of security is distinguished by the fact that, unlike exact science, which studies specific "sides" or "aspects" of security, it attempts to create a universal, holistic outlook on the world, which includes social, political, economical, ecological, military and other issues (Rosa, 1998, p. 18). The views

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Małgorzata Lipińska-Rzeszutek, Ph. D., lecturer, Uniwersytet Przyrodniczo-Humanistyczny w Siedlcach, ul. Orlicz Dreszera 11, 08-110 Siedlce, Poland, [email protected].

of selected luminaries of this branch of philosophy will be presented below, in a brief manner (in accordance with the requirements for this article), with the exclusion of Polish authors in the philosophy of security.

The issues of security, defence, war and the conditions of peace were under the scrutiny of eminent thinkers since the times of Ancient Greece and Rome. One of the greatest Greek philosophers who engaged said issues was Plato. His views on security were expressed in the most complete manner in the oeuvres Republic and Laws.

The issues of state security were seen very broadly by Plato. He did not limit them to the aspects of the presence and use of armed forces (however he was

a proponent of the maintenance of a well organised army by the state). He believed that all citizens, regardless of sex, played an important role in the upkeep of independence and sovereignty.

He believed that the exercise of virtue, moderation and justice was among the most important maxims, in times of both war and peace.

The basic category in Plato's idea of security was the harmony between the social groups, which stemmed from the harmony of the three components of the human soul: intellect, temperament and eagerness. Just as one part of the soul should be subject to another, the components of society should be subject to one another according to a hierarchy, as that would guarantee security, order and justice, within an individual as well as in society itself. According to Plato intellect should rule, since it has the wisdom and should think of the entire soul, and the temperament should serve it and work in alliance; these two elements, in proper harmony, shall rule the eagerness, of which there is the most in everyone's soul (Plato, 1997).

An important contribution to the discussion of security was made by Plato's student, Aristotle of Stagira. He was especially interested in the idea of "the ultimate state", which would guarantee a safe, happy and virtuous life in accordance with the rule of justice to its free citizens (Aristotle, 1964). According to his views, it was the state that catered to the basic needs of the citizens, especially the need of security, which predicates the other needs.

Aristotle condemned those who lived outside of the state. He believed that a human being, properly developed and attributed with the necessary virtues, could be the finest of the beings, but it could also be the lowest, if he or she breaks out of law and justice which is imposed by the state.

Among the Roman philosophers, according to this author, Cicero is the one most deserving mention.

According to Cicero, to ensure a happy life (which was often seen as a life of security) the state was necessary - one can live happily only in a happy state (Cicero, 1999, p. 163). Cicero discussed the necessity to create a just state, free from the vices which threatened the outbreak of unjust wars. He advised to ingrain the "love of peace" into people during upbringing, which would

emphasise justice and resourcefulness, the values sure to guarantee the security of the state and its citizens.

Many other ancient thinkers proposed rules to ensure peace and security, such as the respect for justice and laws in the relations between states and men, the guidance of state policy towards peaceful actions in the interest of the happiness and well-being of the citizens, the upbringing "for peace", the exhaustion of all peaceful measures before the commencement of war, respect for human dignity and human rights and freedoms, including the right to life, which can only be fully realized in times of peace. These proposals retain their importance up to this day.

The renaissance philosophers influenced the modern understanding of security to a significant degree. Among them was Niccolo Machiavelli. The great Italian brought forward the idea that the essence and purpose of the state is to ensure the security and peace for the subjects. In internal relations, he considered it to be the protection of possessions and dignity of the denizens, whereas in external relations he saw the need for a strong, national armed force. He did not overstate the importance of the army to the growth of the state, however, as he acknowledged other factors such as a well maintained economy, good lawmaking, the care for just internal and external relations and for the fates of the citizens (Machiavelli, 1984).

The renaissance gave blossom to several legal and political ideas of a distinctly utopian nature. To their authors, the attainment of happiness was the most important goal in life. That, according to them, could only be attained within a "state of happiness", a state (in the political sense) which was secure on the inside and outside, had a just political system, where the people could achieve their fullest human potential in material and spiritual development. Among the humanists who brought forward these ideas were Thomas Moore, the author of Utopia (1516), Thomasso Campanella, the author of City of the Sun (1623) and Francis Bacon, who wrote New Atlantis (1627). The renaissance thinkers valued the universal importance of peace and its significance to the development and functioning of the state. Perceiving the existing threats to the peace and security of the country, they emphasised and justified the necessity to prepare for the defence of the freedom and independence, sovereignty, safety of the inhabitants, cultural and economic development.

Among the 18. century ideas of security the work of Thomas Hobbes requires attention.

To Hobbes, the state was the only way to establish such a power above the entirety of people, that would be capable to defend them against an attack of aliens and against the harms that they may do to one another, and that would give them such security that they could make a living with their own efforts and live in happiness (Hobbes, 2005, p. 257). Hobbes does not trust any person, he believes in the institution which puts in place the confines, enforces socially

positive behaviour and enables the life in a community which allows to serve the egoistical needs of humans.

Another author of those times was Hugo Grotius. When analysing the relations between states he came to the conclusion that they should be regulated by the "law of nations", which would aim for the benefit of "the great community" and not separate societies. The upkeep of these just rules is beneficial to trade and enables the execution of pacts, which allow reciprocal assistance in the face of a common enemy. The violation of these laws leads to enmity, feuds and wars (Grotius 1957).

The issues of security, war and peace were explored by the great thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment. One of them was Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He argued for such a civilization and culture, such society and state, that would be aligned with the natural development and the needs of an individual. They would be subject to just laws established by the people. Rousseau tackled practical and theoretical problems of the security of people associated together within a state and the defence of such a state. Rousseau argued, that by measure of social contract, which was executed voluntarily and with respect to the rights and dignity of an individual, the people replaced an uncertain existence with a better and more certain one; they exchanged their "natural sovereignty" for a freedom secured by law, made invincible by the social boundaries. Their life is protected at all times, and even when they risk it in defence of the state, they are merely returning what they have received before. Rousseau expressed the important idea, that "internal order" is crucial for external security and peace, as the disturbance of social harmony makes it easy for an enemy to attack and ruin a country.

He considered the middle-sized country the safest one; he saw vast territory as a correlate of the loosening of social ties, the diminishing of the feeling of togetherness, the increase of ethnic disagreements, the rise of disintegrative tendencies etc., which made it more difficult to maintain "internal order" and guarantee external security. Rousseau was a proponent of the creation of federations of middle-sized countries for the purpose of easier defence against stronger enemies and maintaining balance in international relations.

Rousseau also believed in proper education of citizens, which prepared for peaceful work for the common good but also for the defence of the homeland should the need arise, as everyone must fight for the homeland in need

(Rousseau, 1948,

p. 36).

The philosopher pointed out that the origin of evil is not in human nature, but in the life that does not take human nature into account: the development of technology, pursuit of knowledge, following fads, shallow morality, and also the idea of private property, which turned out to be a major source of mankind's depravity.

In the philosophy of German Enlightenment the works of Immanuel Kant (1724-1805) bear special significance. As R. Rosa puts it: By expressing the ideal of "civil society" which eliminates the "rule of the senses", in which the freedom of any individual does not infringe the freedom of any other individual, in which good lawmaking guarantees to everyone the sensible exercise of their liberties, Kant assumed that this ideal may be achieved in the "republican state" (Rosa 1998). Such a system, grounded in the principles of freedom and equality and in good lawmaking, allows the people to participate in the decisions concerning their lives, which includes the issues of security, war and peace. To respect said principles and to act on the grounds of duty instead of materialistic motives or emotions is necessary - according to Kant - to make societies more morally upright and to ensure the final victory of the ideal of justice, and in effect the end of war and the beginning of "eternal peace". To ensure such peace, however, it is not sufficient to eliminate all causes of future wars (a simple truce is not sufficient); it is necessary to respect the rule of autonomy and sovereignty of states and to gradually phase out standing armies, the existence of which continues the risk of the outbreak of new wars.

Therefore the state of "eternal peace" may be achieved, as laid out by Kant, through the moral strengthening of societies, a fundamental political transformation that would lead to the establishment of a republican state; on the international field such peace should be grounded in the "federalism of free states" (Kant, 1993).

This article was intended as a brief presentation of the views on the issue of security of selected writers in the philosophy of security in the period from antiquity to the Enlightenment. The reasoning behind these decisions was twofold: first - to show that the issue of security had its place in the works of great thinkers since ancient times; second - that these ruminations, despite their vintage (and sometimes an utopian quality) have a profound impact on modern understanding of security and the development of security sciences.

In the typology of security that is widespread today various types of security are distinguished according to different criteria (e. g. Stańczyk, 1996). From

a subjective standpoint:

 international,

 national (state),

 local,

 individual security are distinguished.

According to an objective criterion, it is possible to distinguish the following types of security, among others:

 political,

 military,

 social,

 cultural,

 ideological,

 ecological.

A special criterion allows to classify security in five categories:

 local,

 global,

 regional,

 subregional,

 above-regional.

Security can be seen as a state or, as the majority of researchers do, as a process: "security is not just a certain state of affairs, but rather a constant social process, in which the actors attempt to enhance the mechanisms which provide them with a sense of security."

It is also possible to distinguish external security (the lack of danger from other entities) and internal security (internal stability).

An indispensable feature in discussions of security is the classification of danger. J. Supińska characterised the following sources of danger:

 the natural world (the ecosphere);

 the technology, that is the technosphere created by man;

 the social, economical and political systems and their characteristics with regard to the behaviour of individuals;

 the aggression of other individuals;

 the endangered person herself (Supińska, 1991).

One can notice that the elements of security and its dangers in such understanding appeared in the studies of each of the philosophers presented above.

In modern theories, as well as in past ones, the state plays an important role in the assuring of the security of the individual (however, that role appears to be slowly decreasing today).

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BACON , F. 1995. Nowa Atlantyda, trans. Kornatowski W., Wikarjak J., Warszawa, „Alfa – Wero”, ISBN 83-7001-870-X

CAMPANELLA, T. 1955. Miasto Słońca, trans. Brandwajnowie L. i R., Wrocław, Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich

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Appendix to the regulation Wykaz obszarów wiedzy, dziedzin nauki i sztuki oraz dyscyplin naukowych i artystycznych, Journal of Laws No. 179, pos. 1065.

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