DIAGNÓSTICOS DE ENFERMERÍA Diagnósticos intrahospitalarios:
REGISTROS DE ENFERMERÍA (INFORMES DE ENFERMERÍA)
and support from the family, it is unlikely that expertise will be attained (Bloom, 1985; Côté, 1999). Additionally, Bloom‘s (1985) findings indicated that sport was particularly valued in the homes of developing athletes, opportunities for participation in sporting activities were plentiful, and sports were a popular family activity. To continue to explore familial influences on sport expertise development, in section three athletes indicated the regularity of their immediate family‘s participation in physical activity, listed the competitive sports that each member of their immediate family participated in, and recorded the highest level of competition they reached for each of the sports identified.
Demographic information including date of birth, nationality, and the ages during which the athlete lived with each family member was obtained, along with the sex of each sibling, and the occupations of each parent. This information is important in order to identify the contextual factors associated with the athlete‘s home environment during the early stages of their sporting career. Furthermore, knowledge of siblings‘ birth dates can be used to investigate the influence of birth order on the development of sport expertise. Limited evidence exists to suggest that order of birth among siblings has the potential to influence participation in sport (Landers, 1979) and attainment of success in sport (Clark, 1982), with previous research suggesting that later born siblings more likely to participate in and achieve success in sport than first born siblings. Therefore, further investigation in this area is warranted. Items in section three required short open responses or selection of the most appropriate option from a list.
4. Places of Residence
Section four was designed to provide further information regarding the environmental context of athletes‘ development. Specifically, this section addressed the influence of place of residence on the development of sport expertise. Previous investigations have indicated that a disproportionately large number of elite athletes grew up in small to medium sized towns with populations of approximately 1,000 to 500,000 people (Côté et al., 2006; MacDonald et al., 2009). It has been suggested that the physical and psychosocial environments of small to medium sized towns may be more conducive for plentiful and positive sporting experiences than very small towns or large cities (Côté et al., 2006).
Support for the birthplace effect, however, has been equivocal (Baker et al., 2009), and as such requires further investigation. Studies of the birthplace effect to date have typically extracted data pertaining to birthplace or home town from professional athletes‘ open source biographical records (Baker & Logan, 2007; Baker et al., 2009; Côté et al., 2006; Curtis &
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Birch, 1987; MacDonald et al., 2009). As a result, investigations have failed to take into consideration the possibility that athletes may have relocated to a different residence prior to or during their early sporting experiences; in which case, another town, potentially of a different population, may have been more influential on their development than their birthplace. This issue was highlighted by Baker et al. (2009), who observed inconsistencies between the location of German athletes‘ birthplace and the location of their first club, hence questioning the validity of birthplace as a proxy for athletes‘ early developmental environments.Accordingly, it is important to consider not only athletes‘ birthplace, but also place of residence during various stages of development. It would also be interesting to identify relocations for reasons relating to sport, including athletes‘ age and stage of development at the time of relocation, as well as the nature of the relocation (i.e. from a smaller city to a larger city, to a state or national training centre etc.), in order to explore the potentially reciprocal relationship between place of residence and the development of sport expertise in more detail. Therefore, items in this section required participants to recall the location of each home in which they have lived, the ages during which they lived there, and who they lived with. For each new place of residence, athletes were also required to specify the particular reason for relocation. This information allows for examination of typical city sizes during various stages of development, as well as identification of when, and how many times athletes relocated for reasons related to sport. All responses for section four were provided in chart format.
5. Organised Sport Practice History
This section of the DHAQ addresses athletes‘ participation in sports other than their main sport. One of the most debated areas in the literature relating to the development of sport expertise surrounds early specialisation or diversification as the optimal pathway for success. The deliberate practice framework (Ericsson et al., 1993) suggests that in order to attain expertise in any given domain, it is important to engage in large amounts of highly structured, highly effortful practice activities that are designed with the specific goal of performance improvement. The framework proposes that the effects of practice are cumulative, so a participant who initiates deliberate practice at a later age will be unable to catch up and surpass another who began at an earlier age. However, large investments in a single sport at a young age are also associated with a number of risks and detrimental effects that could outweigh the performance benefits of engaging in such high amounts of practice (Wiersma, 2000).
Early diversification has been proposed as an alternative pathway towards sport expertise (Baker, 2003). This approach suggests that it is more beneficial to engage in a number