This section presents debates around newly emergent biopolymers, derived from natural renewable sources, and information on advances in green and white
biotechnology. Consideration is made of the processing technology which uses non- harmful chemicals and explains what makes biopolymers different from traditional polymer fibres derived from depleting resources; coal and oil. Biopolymers have been developed specifically as a sustainable and renewable alternative to traditional synthetic derivatives (Mines, 2009). The section contains information and discussion of the success of biopolymer research from a research perspective and outlines reasons designers could be using biopolymers more widely in relation to wellbeing. Detailed information and discussion of biopolymer fibres is presented in chapter 5.
2.2.1 Biopolymer fibres from natural renewable sources
Biopolymers are derived from fast growing staple crops. Mukherjee and Kao (2011) describe biopolymers as a distinct group of renewable fibres developed mostly from plants such as Bamboo, Soya and Tencel (Lyocel) which is cellulose and originates from softwood tree bark. These renewable fibres originate across the world and can be harvested in as little as six weeks. Renewable raw fibres from natural plant sources (cellulosic fibres) alone do not guarantee sustainability (Fletcher 2012:14). However, although renewable fibres still require high quantities of water, the speed at which they grow limits this and the amounts of pesticides required. Significantly they are completely biodegradable at end of use (Fletcher 2008:32). Fletcher notes two types of natural bamboo fibre; one that uses the ‘chemically pollutant’ viscose process and the other, bamboo linen, which does not use chemical additives (such as Ingeo™ from Nature Works). Fletcher states that there is limited information, produced by one commercial company in China, which highlights the need to identify further knowledge of biopolymer fibres in relation to sustainability. As Bamboo is readily available both as raw fibre and yarns, and has antibacterial properties, it has appeal for independent designers. Milk fibre PLA (casein) is also becoming more available and attractive for similar reasons. However, the methods of production are not made evident in labeling. Knowledge of the processing technologies used in these fibres is constricted by commercial secrecy. Research and development is on-going; Swedish brand H&M featured clothing made from Tencel (Garden Collection in 2010) along with recycled polyester, organic cotton and linen (Fletcher and Grose 2012:16).The appeal of these fibres is in their unique material properties, the way that the fibres are produced rather than their physical appearance or handle.
Kimura (2008:26) establishes what sets biopolymer fibres originating from renewable natural sources apart from other fibres is method of production, cellulosic or viscose systems (Vink et al, cited by Farrington, 2012) Consideration of how these fibre degrade affects commercial evaluation of the potential in those fibres rather than their physical properties and characteristics and indicates a further knowledge gap in emergent fibre processing chemistry. Fletcher and Grose (2012:15) diagram of textile fibre types maps the complex grouping of fibres by processing type but this specifically does not mention biopolymers nor biodegradability.
The development of biopolymer fibres‘ properties and characteristics by key theorists such as Duggan (2006) and Kimura (2008) serves as an introduction to claims made about the environmental aspects of the fibres. Farringdon et al (2005) and Mahanty et al (2005) identified issues arising from selection of biopolymers as alternatives to
traditional natural fibres, which is briefly considered in Fletcher (2008 and 2012). This is now considered in this thesis from the designer-makers position as opposed to a textile industry researcher perspective.
Knowledge about how less environmentally detrimental materials have emerged and the additional properties and characteristics they possess could lead to the extension of the strategies exemplified in the cases presented in Gwilt and Rissanen (2011) and Black (2012). The design appeal of biopolymers is discussed fully from the perspective of designer-makers (section 5.4).
2.2.2 Why biopolymers differ from traditional natural fibres
Biopolymers used in this study are bamboo viscose, Tencel (Lyocel) and milk PLA. PLA (polylactide - milk casein), is the only natural resource polymer produced at a large scale of over 140,000 tonnes per year (as at 2011) is widely investigated by polymer composite scientists because of its ability to compete with non renewable petroleum based products (Mukherjee and Kao, 2011).
These polymers can be processed into fibres and films and applied as
commodities to apparel materials. With increasing member of this class, a new paradigm of material science and technology will be established.
(Kimura 2008:26) Their performance characteristics, such as softness, make the fibres more alluring and wearable in addition to their environmental impact. Newly developed Bio-based polymers and convincingly superior to the conventional petroleum-based polymers in reducing the emission of carbon dioxide to the global atmosphere even after their incineration, Kimura (2008:26).
Vink et al (cited by Farrington 2005:212) stated the limitations of Milk PLA. Whilst it has similar properties and handle to cotton and polyesters, has a lower melting point which restricts applications; transfer printing and ironing, for example, and although these problems have been addressed with time, the research indicates milk PLA is more sustainable than comparable polymers. More recent milk PLA fibre developments by for
example the German milk PLA fibre production company Qmilch Gmbh6; herald
imminent European fibre manufacture and availability - achieved during the period of the study.
Dugan (2001:02) states that vegetable source PLA has many of the advantages of
synthetic and natural fibres,- ...its raw materials are both renewable and non-polluting, and PLA .is also compostable. After hydrolysis at 89% and 60⁰C or higher, PLA is readily consumed by microbes. This means that the fibres will decompose completely and relatively quickly in natural soils. A further relevant factor from the same paper (Dugan 2001:03) explains that PLA is less environmentally costly than polymers that are recyclable, because there is a limit to the number of recycling iterations that can occur before the material looses its usefulness (Duggan, 2001:30).
The plethora of scientific, technical and chemical developments evidenced the growing success of biopolymers and considerable technical performance capabilities. However, they did not indicate any of the aesthetic properties other than ‗handle‘. Whilst they had proved to be technically comparable to traditional natural fibres, there was no indication of their design and creative application potential. This emerged as a further gap in the knowledge that this study has addressed through practical creative exploration detailed in chapter 6.
2.2.3 Green Chemistry and White Biotechnology Processing
It is relevant to this study to understand the differences between biopolymer and polymer textile fibre processing methods because the green chemistry (also called sustainable chemistry a philosophy of chemical research and engineering encourages the design of products and processes) minimizes the use and generation of hazardous substances7. Fibres such as Bamboo, Milk PLA, Lyocel and cellulose fibres for example are produced using this method of production. White biotechnology is applied to industrial processes with the use of cells, natural organisms and bio-organic compounds to synthesise materials, instead of petrochemicals or substitution of enzymes for caustic reagents8. Replacing chemically generated enzymes with natural organisms prevents use of environmentally detrimental substances.
6
http://www.facebook.com/QmilchTheNewSuperFabric 7
http://www.natureworks.com
Biopolymers are produced from green and white chemical process technology and possess a capacity to work in harmony with the body (Bronzino in Davim 2012:4). Biopolymers possess inherent characteristics and a suitability for application in
advanced textiles, particularly in medical textiles for example in wound dressings and in biological mesh facilitation9; Biopolymer characteristics are applied in surgical use and indicate their suitability for use internally. Because biopolymers are effective for medical implants within the body, they are overlooked for use as topical textile products.
2.2.4 Clearer Knowledge of Biopolymers
Research collaboration and technological advances are migrated through knowledge transfer but the route can inhibit independent designer-makers. Fletcher and Grose (2012:18) suggests, “there is scope for confusion around terminology associated with synthetic fibre degradability”. Fletcher and Grose (2012) explain;- ...”further hurdles to these fibres successfully delivering on their sustainability promise in that they increase the potential for cross-contamination of different waste streams with fibre of different classes of degradability…” Fletcher and Grose document specific collaborations that apply:
Application of Cradle to Cradle® philosophy in practice, and more in the
realisation that, entirely new types of thinking need to be developed if we are to bring change on a scale necessitated by sustainability .
(Fletcher and Grose 2012:20).
Fletcher explains that Fashion and Textile designers are becoming more engaged in the industrial and technical processes and furthermore,- when designers are actively involved in the technical aspects of processing, it prompts further questioning of technicians, leading to a wider disclosure of ecological impacts (Fletcher and Grose 2012:33). Textiles Environment Design10 (TED‘s Ten) attempts to redress this issue. TED has been developing practice-based strategies that assist designers in creating textiles that have a reduced impact on the environment. Recent collaborative projects Include: Worn Again: Rethinking Recycled Textiles and the MISTRA Future Fashion
9
project11 (2005-2017), leading to the development of a model for practice-based
research, the first of its kind within the sustainable textile design field. Of the ten online strategies, several are being met by biopolymer fibres producers. Numbers 3: Design to recycle chemical impacts and 5: Design that explores clean/better technologies12, relate closely to my research focus. The ten strategies are interconnected therefore strategies are met simultaneously. Refined renewable fibre processing indicates an apparently perfect solution to many of the negative ecological environmental impacts of textiles. Those strategies reflect a shift in consumer expectation (O’Mahony 26:2011) towards performance driven characteristics, within future textiles; sportswear, medical and wellbeing textile development, which could provide a niche for the further
application of biopolymers. The Textile Futures Research Centre (TFRC) researchers explore areas of fashion, product, architecture, environment, medicine, well-being and social innovation. “TFRC is a strong, vibrant and active research community with diverse research activities and outputs. These range from the creation of new materials and techniques, through to critical academic papers and participation in national and international conferences”. (http://www.arts.ac.uk/research/ual-research-
centres/textiles/futures)
Table 2-2 TED‘s TEN Sustainable Design Strategies 10 http://www.tedresearch.net/teds-ten/
11 http://mistrafuturefashion.com/new-report-on-microplastics-from-polyester-fabrics/
12 /http://www.tedresearch.net/teds-ten/
1 Design to minimize waste. 2 Design for cycleability
3 Design to reduce chemical impacts 4 Design to reduce energy and water use
5 Design that explores clean and better technologies 6 Design that takes models from nature and history 7 Design for ethical production
8 Design to reduce the need to consume 9 Design to dematerialize and develop systems 10 Design activism