ROSSI, G iuseppe Cario, Estudios sobre las letras , p 54.

Access to safe water and sanitation facilities is a significant problem in Somalia, aggravated by the destruction and looting of water supply installations during the civil war, the continuing conflict, and a general lack of maintenance. The majority of Somalis access water from shallow wells, rivers and Berkads5. As of 2010, only 29 percent of the total population had access to improved water sources throughout the year (UNICEF and WHO, 2012). In many areas of Somalia such as the Galgadud region, the nearest safe6 water source can be 70km or further from settlement areas. Whilst in other areas boreholes between 170-240m deep are needed to access water. The basic water needs of over three million Somalis are met from water sources that are unprotected and often contaminated with micro-organisms. Approximately 71 percent of the population access their water from unimproved or surface water sources7 (UN Cluster, 2006; UNICEF and WHO, 2012). During the dry season wells often become saline or contaminated causing severe outbreaks of

5

A berkad is a traditional human-made reservoir usually filled by rainfall and runoff. They are typically shaded with small bushes, have a capacity of 30 to 400 m3 and used for both livestock and human consumption. Berkads were traditionally privately owned by households and provided a source of income.

6

Safe drinking water is water with microbial, chemical and physical characteristics that meet WHO guidelines or national drinking water standards. Access to a safe water source is the proportion of people using improved drinking water sources, which can include a household connection, public standpipe, borehole, protected dug well, protected spring and rainwater collection (WHO, 2013).

7

Unimproved water sources include unprotected dug wells, unprotected springs and water delivered by cart or tanker. Surface water includes water taken directly from rivers, ponds, irrigation channels and other surface sources (UNICEF and WHO, 2012).

diarrhea and other water-related diseases (UNEP, 2005). Acute water shortages and contaminated water sources result in poor health for both humans and livestock, which further contribute to food insecurity.

Only 23 percent of Somalis live in households with access to sanitary means of disposing excreta (UNICEF and WHO, 2012). The majority of the population practice open defecation, which is generally close to dwellings and water sources (ibid and European Commission, 2007). Approximately 52 percent of people in urban areas have access to improved sanitation facilities whereas 83 percent of people living in rural areas defecate in open areas and have no access to sanitation facilities (UNICEF and WHO, 2012). A lack of clean water, poor hygiene and environmental sanitation are the main underlying causes of diseases such as cholera and dysentery in Somalia. Cholera is endemic in Somalia with outbreaks occurring annually from December to June, it claims hundreds of lives each year, particularly in densely populated areas (UNICEF, no date, b).

Most of the sanitation facilities in Somalia are pit latrines. Few of the latrines are equipped with septic tanks and two-thirds of these are not managed, which causes contamination of the water table. In areas where displaced people have settled, almost no sanitation facilities exist. This forces most to resort to open defecation on the periphery of peri-urban areas and camps (USAID, 2008). Without access to latrines, many women and girls will only relieve themselves at night. This places them at greater risk of physical attack and sexual violence and many women and girls are raped when they resort to open defecation (UNICEF, 2010a).

A lack of accessible, safe water sources has further negative effects on women and children. Collecting water for the family and household is the responsibility of women whereas taking herds of cattle and camel to watering points is the responsibility of men in Somalia. Many Somali women and children walk long distances each day to collect water. This exposes them to attacks and sexual violence (IDP Project, 2004; Said, 2010) and the time spent collecting water prevents many children, mainly girls, from attending

school and women from engaging in other activities including, agriculture or income generation (Said, 2010; UN Cluster, 2006). In rural areas, women and girls spend two to three hours every day walking to water points that generally have poor quality water (UN Cluster, 2006).

Water is a traditional source of conflict in Somali society due to its scarcity. Conflicts generally occur over water for two reasons. Firstly, when local supplies diminish particularly during dry periods or droughts. This places pressure on pastoralists to water their herds and they are forced to travel long distances to reach water, for which there is fierce competition. Secondly, when a new or displaced group settles in an area where water is scarce, tensions rise between the existing inhabitants and the new group (Mohamed, no date).

A final challenge for water and sanitation in Somalia is the lack of data and knowledge regarding water sources. Many international organisations for example, UNICEF, USAID, the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, CARE and Norwegian Church Aid are involved in delivering water and sanitation projects throughout Somalia. Numerous agencies have drilled deep boreholes to provide water for communities. There is however, no understanding of the water table or groundwater levels in Somalia and drilling boreholes as a short-term solution today could exacerbate problems in the future if the water table becomes over exploited without replenishment.