Semántica de Datalog no recursivo

When  examining  parkour’s  relationship  to  film  it  is  important  to  remember  that  it  has  not   simply  been  as  means  to  document  the  activity,  but  it  has  a  reciprocal  dialogue  with  the   medium,  being  both  the  source  of  inspiration  that  its  founders  built  upon,  and  a  resource  of   influence  itself.  Whereas  method  naturelle  training  exercises  lay  the  theoretical  foundations   for  traceurs’  perception  of  bodily  movement,  science–fiction,  action  and  martial  arts  films   have  all  served  an  important  role  in  determining  its  narrative  qualities.24  _{Due  to  the  quasi–} militant   nature   of   the   practice,   filmic   portrayals   of   parkour   demonstrate   the   acts   of   resilience  required  to  deterritorialise  a  space  in  order  to  redefine  its  meaning  and  challenge   conventional  notions  of  place–making.    

Yamakasi:  les  samouraïs  des  temps  moderns,  along  with  films  such  as  Banlieue  13  

(Morel   2004)   and   banlieue   13   Ultimatum,   (Alessandrin   2009)   both   written   by   the   distinguished   French   writer,   director,   and   producer   Luc   Besson,   include   many   of   the   conventional   tropes   found   within   contemporary   action   cinema.   These   include   elaborate   chase  and  fight  scenes  that  are  used  to  build  up  a  narrative  based  upon  emotional  intensity.   Additionally  these  films  also  serve  as  commentary  on  the  issues  of  social  polarization  facing   contemporary   western   cities.   Both   of   the  banlieue   films   depict   dystopian   near–future   narratives,  which  see  a  district  of  Paris  literally  walled  off  to  restrict  the  spread  of  endemic                                                                                                                                          

24  _{The  founders  of  parkour  have  been  raised  to  an  almost  mythological  status  due  their  appearance}  

in  big  budget  films  that  have  been  aimed  towards  the  masses  rather  than  a  niche  audience.  The  first   of  such  films,  which  featured  the  Yamakasi  group,  was  entitled  Taxi  2  (Krawczyk  2000).  Besson  later   cast  the  Yamakasi  group  in  his  film  after  their  creative  spontaneity  and  ethnic  diversity  caught  his   attention  in  public  performances  that  they  were  involved  with  (Stapleton,  Terrio  2010,  p.  3).  Besson   subsequently  cast  the  Yamakasi  in  their  own  feature  film  entitled  Yamakasi:  les  samouraïs  des  temps   moderns  (Zeitoun,  Seri  2001).  The  film  turned  the  group  into  caricatures,  portraying  them  as  a  group   as   heroes   rebelling   against   figures   of   authority,   in   a   battle   constructed   from   the   realities   of   their   deprived  city  surroundings.  The  film  enabled  the  group  to  depict  characters  that  contrasted  with  the   clichéd  figures  that  were  associated  with  the  negative  aspects  of  the  Parisian  banlieue  such  as  high   levels  of  unemployment  and  racial  segregation.  The  visual  representation  of  parkour  within  films  can   therefore  be  seen  as  playing  on  the  fears  and  anxieties  associated  with  contemporary  youth  culture   by  focusing  upon  narratives  that  engage  with  the  pervasive  influence  of  criminality.    

crime.   The   use   of   urban   space   to   bound   and   effectively   imprison   individuals   deeply   resonates  with  concepts  of  ghettoisation  and  segregation,  scenarios  of  failure  that  planning   policies  are  established  to  prevent.  Social  divisions  are  also  illustrated  by  the  demonstration   of   traceurs’   uncomfortable   relationship   between   state   governance,   in   the   form   of   police,   which  control  the  order  of  urban  space,  and  illicit  gang  forces  that  challenge  its  codes  and   boundaries.  25  _{In  doing  so,  the  films  help  to  highlight  the  complex  and  polymorphous  nature}   of  the  influences  that  continually  defines  and  redefines  the  notion  of  a  parkour  philosophy.      

This  text  box  is  where  the  unabridged  version  of  the  thesis  contained  the  following  third  party   copyrighted  material:  

Image  from  MOREL,  P.,  2004.  Banlieue  13.  First  edn.  Paris,  France;  Pitesti,  Romania:  Canal  +.    

Figure  2  –  Image  of  David  Belle  in  his  appearance  in  Banlieue  13  (2004).  

25  _{The  tensions  portrayed  between  these  two  opposing  forces  mimicked  the  struggle  between  real–}

life  banlieue  residents,  which  are  made  up  largely  from  ethnic  minority  groups  and  the  police  that   manifested   in   the   French   riots   of   October   and   November   2005.   The   two   weeks   of   rioting   were   triggered   by   the   accidental   deaths   of   two   Muslim   youths   who   had   been   electrocuted   during   an   attempt  to  flee  from  the  police.  These  disturbances  caused  considerable  devastation,  including  the   torching  of  between  9  –  10,000  cars,  the  burning  of  around  300  buildings  and  an  estimated  4,700   arrests  (Knox,  Pinch  2010,  p.  290).  The  images  depicting  the  events  had  many  striking  similarities  to   violent  and  destructive  acts  which  have  been  witnessed  in  other  Western  cities  in  recent  decades,   such  as,  the  widespread  looting  in  Los  Angeles  in  1992,  the  Greek  riots  of  late  2008  and  the  unrest   throughout   the   U.K.   during   the   summer   of   2011.   Consequently,   films   such   as  Banlieue  13   used   fictional   devices  to   exaggerate   the   issues   found   not   only   in   the   suburbs   of   Paris,   but   also   in   cities   throughout   the   world.   Therefore,   the   films’   depiction   of   monumental   destructive   events,   bring   to   attention   the   role   of   agency   in   reconciling   their   conflicts   on   an   urban   scale   through   the   empowerment  of  disenfranchised  members  of  society.  

Traceurs  have  also  been  used  to  play  antagonist  roles  in  feature  films,  most  notably  in  the   storyline  of  Casino  Royale  (Campbell  2006).  The  ‘reboot’  of  the  James  Bond  franchise  places   the  James  Bond  character  who  was  developed  in  the  cold  war  era  in  the  context  of  post– September   11th   _{counter   terrorism   strategies.   In   the   opening   sequence   the   James   Bond}   character   played   by   Daniel   Craig   pursues   the   traceur   Sébastien   Foucan’s   character   –   a   member  of  a  terror  network  –  in  a  chase  sequence  that  takes  him  on  an  elaborate  route   through   buildings,   across   a   construction   site,   and   ending   up   at   the   top   of   a   mechanical   crane  where  he  is  finally  eliminated.  The  disparity  in  the  characters’  types  of  movement  is   again   reminiscent   of   the   dialogue   between  smooth   and  striated  space.   Craig’s   character   utilises   force   to   destroy   the   obstructions   that   get   in   his   way   as   a   means   to   navigate   the   terrain,   Foucan   conversely   focuses   on   elaborate   forms   of   agility   to   manipulate   his   path   around  the  environment  and  demonstrates  how  it  can  be  incorporated  into  his  movement   to  temporarily  re–territorialise  his  surroundings.    

This  text  box  is  where  the  unabridged  version  of  the  thesis  contained  the  following  third  party   copyrighted  material:  

Image  from  CAMPBELL,  M.,  2006.  Casino  Royale.  First  edn.  Various:  Columbia  Pictures.    

Figure  3  –  Image  of  Sébastien  Foucan's  appearance  in  Casino  Royale  (2006).    

Returning   again   to   the  banlieue   as   an   iconic   setting   for   parkour  in   film,  the   proximity   of   these   areas   to   the   nation’s   capital   has   also   been   used   to   highlight   the   juxtaposition   between  spaces  that  are  prosperous  and  well  maintained  and  those  that  are  neglected  or   redundant.   This   complexity   expresses   a   tension   between   practices   of   dwelling   that   establish  forms  of  being  and  becoming  in  place.  

In  addition  to  the  urban  deprivation  and  the  resulting  social  hostility  of  the  Parisian  

banlieue  as  reoccurring  themes  found  within  visual  representations  of  parkour,  alienation  is  

also   consistently   examined   as   a   theme   that   parallels   the   physicality   of   urban   conditions.   The  filmic  portrayals  of  the  banlieue  parallel  discussions  on  the  notion  of  anthropological   place   and   non–places,   which   are   characterised   as   spaces   that   are   the   result   of   social   transiency  found  within  late  modernity.  As  the  anthropologist  Marc  Augé  states,  

‘If   [anthropological]   place   can   be   defined   as   relational,   historical   and   concerned   with  identity,  then  a  space  which  cannot  be  defined  as  relational,  or  historical,  or   concerned  with  identity  will  be  a  non–place.  The  hypothesis  advanced  here  is  that   supermodernity   produces   non–places,   meaning   spaces   which   are   not   themselves   anthropological  places.’  (Augé  1995,  p.  77)      

Fears   of   the   destruction   of   anthropological   place   are   evident   in   the   settings   where   the   narrative  of  Banlieue  13  films  occurs.  It  is  also  evident  that  the  destruction  of  meaning  in   places  is  the  result  of  both  state  control  and  gang  violence.  Subsequently,  the  protagonist   of  the  film  played  by  David  Belle  has  an  ambivalent  relationship  with  the  state,  neither  truly   working   with   or   against   them,   but   rather   his   attention   is   on   opposing   the   negative   influences   of   the   gangs   that   render   the   banlieue   uninhabitable.   Again   this   parallels   the   existence  of  parkour  in  reality,  which  often  finds  itself  policed  by  figures  of  authority  but   offers  practitioners  an  activity  that  is  not  intended  to  disrupt  the  civic  stability  of  a  place.    

Matthew   Kassovitz’s26  _{iconic   film  La   Haine  (1995)   also   uses   the   banlieue   as   a}   subject   that   epitomises   the   social   segregation   of   Jacque   Chirac’s   post–colonial   France.   Hence,   the   multi–ethnic   youth   that   starred   in  La   Haine   and   the  banlieue   surroundings   in   which   they   inhabited   became   a   symbol   of   the   conflicting   attitudes   towards   the   political   state  of  the  nation.  La  Haine  does  not  contain  the  sophisticated  action  sequences  of  conflict   found  within  the  Banlieue  13  films,  but  instead  conveys  the  violence  of  the  city  in  a  more   realist  manner,  highlighting  its  psychological  impact.  The  narrative  of  the  film  follows  a  day   in  the  life  of  three  friends  living  amongst  the  civic  unrest  of  the  banlieue  and  their  tortuous   journey  across  Paris.  The  film  documents  the  characters  ever–fluctuating  relationship  with   the   social   diversity   of   the   city   and   highlights   the   urban   codes   that   create   their   sense   of   being–in   and   being–out   of   place.   The   spontaneity   of   the   events   that   they   come   across   throughout  the  film  are  akin  to  those  of  the  Situationists’  psycho–geographical  dérives  that   demonstrate  a  desire  towards  an  authentic  representation  of  the  city,  rather  than  one  that  

26  _{In  the  journal  article  entitled;  Mathieu  Kassovitz's  La  Haine  and  the  Ambivalence  of  French–Jewish}  

Identity,  Sven-­‐Erik  Rose  questions  how  the  film  self-­‐reflexively  explores  the  place  of  Jewishness  in   the  social  crisis  it  dramatizes.  The  film  can  therefore  be  understood  as  espousing  qualities  of  an   ethno  fiction;  a  term  made  famous  by  the  anthropologist  Jean  Rouch,  as  a  method  of  intertwining   documentary  with  fiction  in  a  manner  that  recreates  actual  or  possible  events.  This  approach  to   filmmaking  also  examines  how  the  actual  lives  of  the  filmmaker  and  those  who  are  the  subject   of  the  film  are  evident  within  it.    

has  been  produced  for  mass-­‐consumption.  As  the  storyline  progresses  it  becomes  evident   that  their  presence  within  parts  of  the  city  is  at  odds  with  the  characters  that  dwell  within   the   places   they   encounter.   This   in   turn   parallels   the   narrative   consistently   present   with   traceur’s   journeys   through   the   cityscapes   which   highlight   how   perfomative   actions   demonstrate   the   existence   of   underlying   conflicting   social   identities   that   are   associated   with  a  particular  space.  As  Norberg–Schulz  points  out    

‘The  identity  of  a  person  is  defined  in  terms  of  the  schemata  developed,  because   they   determine   the   “world”   which   is   accessible.   This   fact   is   confirmed   by   the   common  linguistic  usage.  When  a  person  wants  to  tell  who  is,  it  is  in  fact  usual  to   say:   “I   am   a   New   Yorker”,   or   “I   am   a   Roman”[...]   we   understand   that   human   identity  is  to  a  high  extent  a  function  of  places  and  things.’  (Norberg–Schulz  1980,  p   .21)  

In  the  situations  portrayed  within  La  Haine,  it  is  apparent  that  the  world  which  is  accessible   to  the  protagonists  of  the  film  is  not  restricted  by  geographical  distance  but  by  the  social   boundaries   that   they   are   unable   to   negotiate.   Consequently,   throughout   the   film,   the   characters   are   represented   as   being   displaced   on   two   levels   –   from   countries   that   their   ethnicity  is  connected  to,  and  from  the  neighbourhood  that  they  are  familiar  with.    

This  text  box  is  where  the  unabridged  version  of  the  thesis  contained  the  following  third  party   copyrighted  material:  

Image  from  KASSOVITZ,  M.,  1995.  La  Haine.  First  edn.  Paris,  France:  Canal  +.    

Figure  4    –  Image  taken  from  La  Haine  (1995)  showing  the  three  protagonists  played  by  Vincent   Cassel,  Hubert  Koundé  and  Saïd  Taghmaoui  

Parkour’s  relationship  with  the  banlieue  thus  emphasises  and  challenges  urban  codes  that   govern  which  spaces  are  accessed  by  whom.  Moreover,  the  use  of  filmmaking  techniques  in   the  narratives  that  are  addressed  here,  demonstrates  ways  in  which  film  can  be  used  as  a   means  to  document  social  boundaries  that  are  associated  with  the  qualities  of  a  place.  In  so   doing,   films   that   feature   parkour   and   other   activities   that   parallel   its   subversive   nature,  

offer   an   important   cultural   artefact   that   documents   the   dialectic   between   individual   identity  and  the  essentialised  character  of  a  place.