4.4.1 Population profiles. mean aze at death and life tables
Few well-preserved or adequately studied samples of human remains are currently available for the Southern Levantine LB A (Arensburg 2002: 209), or Iron Age burial sites. A limited number of samples come from multiple cave tombs, exhibiting a high degree o f commingling, and generally poor preservation, thus limiting the level of
accuracy o f osteological findings. It is hoped that future osteological research in more recent systematically excavated mortuary contexts can provide further insights into demographic aspects o f Iron Age societies35.
There are some studies of burial populations in the Bronze and Iron Ages that could provide comparative data for the Sa’idiyeh cemetery. Early research on Bronze and Iron Age burial populations comes from excavations at Lachish (Giles 1953, 1958; Risdon 1939) and Jericho (Hughes 1965), although these studies are primarily aimed at reconstructing racial characteristics o f ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern populations, and are of little or no value in reconstructing demographic aspects o f burial populations. Hendrix’s preliminary study o f the Pella tombs (2004), provides an overview o f the burial population for the LBA-ELA. A study of skeletal remains from the Tell el-Mazar (Cemetery A) includes an abridged life-table and a summary o f the mortality distribution of the late Iron Age and Persian periods (Disi et al 1984). The Baq’ah Valley Caves B3 and A4 (McGovern 1986) provides insights into burial populations for the LBA and EIA periods. The results of these osteological analyses are utilized as a comparison with the Sa’idiyeh cemetery evidence.
A published study of the cemetery at Sa’idiyeh (Leach & Rega 1996) examines a sample of burials in Areas BB and DD (South area of the cemetery), under the assumption that these burials are LBA or EIA in date. This study needs to be re-assessed, as many of the tombs listed from these areas, particularly DD, are likely to be Islamic/Ottoman in date [Ch.2.5.2]. A recent study uses Leach & Rega’s results to provide a comparison with the LBA-EIA tombs at Pella (Hendrix 2004). Both studies need to be reassessed, and are unlikely to provide meaningful results due to the lack o f chronological resolution in the Sa’idiyeh samples used.
No osteological analysis was carried out on remains from Pritchard’s excavations, although general ‘adult’ and ‘child’ categories were recorded (1980: Table 2). The osteological age and sex data used in this thesis comes from a series o f published and unpublished reports from the British Museum excavations. The majority o f human remains from the Central Area (BB 100-600) were examined by Henderson (1985), Beklavac & Wood (1987) and Forbes (1998). Human remains from the South area (BB700-1400, DD) were examined mainly by Leach (1999) and Leach & Rega (1996).
A small proportion of human remains from the British Museum excavations were not examined osteologically due to issues of preservation or disturbance. Specific
osteological information for each individual is not presented in this thesis, and awaits re
assessment and final publication. General age and sex estimations for each tomb are presented alongside other data in tables 5.20-25, Tables 7.11-13. Only age (including age ranges) and sex estimates are utilized from the osteological reports36. Information on pathology, diet and disease await future integration with the phasing and tomb data.
There are differing levels o f age data available due to differences in recording and preservation. General age categories include subadult (SA), and adult (A) groups.
Specific age categories include infant, child, juvenile (Juv), young adult (YA), mature adult (MA), old adult (OA). Mean age data is used if both minimum and maximum age estimates are provided. The age intervals for each category used in this analysis are provided in tables 4.13 onwards.
The following analysis o f the Sa’idiyeh population is presented in three stages.
• an overview of subadult: adult ratios
• mean age at death and mean age counts to construct mortality profiles
• Life tables provide an overview o f survivorship and life expectancy
These analyses are carried out under the assumption that: a) this is a single and stable population - i.e. not adversely affected by catastrophic events such as conflict or famine;
and b) that the population is static, and not affected by migration - i.e. population elements moving into or away from the population (Angel 1969; Hassan 1981: 108-9).
It is, however, likely that these assumptions do not hold for the Jordan Valley during the LBA and EIA, especially given that the potential for conflict, famine, and migration is very high. There are several limitations and reasons why a burial population does not necessarily relate to a complete living population37. At Sa’idiyeh, factors include poor preservation, potential osteological bias, and finally, cultural factors that may have affected the choices o f particular burial areas or modes o f burial.
Table 4.12 presents the osteological data for general adult and subadult age categories (thus increasing sample sizes, but reducing the refined analysis o f sub-categories), showing counts for the total number o f individuals and articulated individuals38. The findings show that subadult: adult ratios are different between Periods 1 and 2. A low subadult: adult ratio is present for PI (0.36: 1.0), with a more balanced adult ratio present in P2 (0.75: 1.0).
The distributions presented in table 4.13 utilizes mean age data from individuals with minimum and maximum age estimates. This provides a more accurate distribution of age sub-categories, although it also reduces the sample size for each separate period and disregards a large number o f individuals with general subadult or adult age categories.
A total of 489 individuals are counted in the Pcomb sample, o f which 215 individuals have both minimum and maximum estimated ages available, enabling the calculation of mean age at death. Sample size clearly affects the population profiles. This is especially apparent for the PI sample, which is affected by the lack o f mean age estimates from Pritchard's area39. It should be reiterated here that this preliminary analysis uses osteological data from a range o f sources, and that these findings will require reassessment to account for biases and recording differences.
The age sub-categories are selected as the most appropriate for this sample, enabling broad patterns between relatively small age intervals to be detected. Neonates are merged with occasional instances o f foetal category individuals (in utero foetuses not counted here). Other subadult categories are split into two year intervals, juvenile/young adults into three year intervals, and young, mature and old adults into seven and eight year intervals. Figure 4.18 shows the Pcomb counts by ascending age group, with PI and P2 profiles separately in figures 4.19-4.20.
The profiles presented in figs. 4.18-4.20 are not representative of a ‘normal’ population, as neonates and young children are under-represented for both periods. This is clearest in PI, which partly reflects a small sample size, and a lack of osteological analysis in Pritchard’s excavations. The scarcity o f the youngest age categories could in part relate to the use o f different burial locations or methods of interment from adults40. A 'U- shaped1 dip of the profile for older child and younger juvenile categories is considered a normal feature for most stable pre-industrial populations (Rega 1996: 235-236, Waldron
1994:41-53).
The low number o f articulated young subadults partly relates to the non-fusion o f their bones, thus leading to disarticulation and poor preservation, especially within jar burials.
Apart from the low proportions o f articulated subadults at under 8 years, the profiles for other age categories show similarities between the ‘total’ and ‘articulated’ samples.
Exceptional are adult categories in P2, which have a slightly larger proportion of
disarticulated remains, perhaps linked to a higher degree o f secondary treatment and disturbance [see section 4.4.6].
For Pcomb, the peak age-at-death is the young adult category (21-27 years). Subsequent age categories between 28-50 + show a steady decline in frequency. The mean age at death (i.e. life expectancy at birth) for Pcomb is c.17 years, a figure affected by including subadults. The PI peak age-at-death is also in the 21-27 year category, although a higher mean age (c.24 years) appears to be due to the smaller number o f subadults present.
The P2 profile is perhaps therefore more representative due to its larger sample size and range o f age categories present. Neonates and infants are more common, and subadult frequencies are closer to a ‘normal’ population profile (although still under-represented).
A slight difference is present between the PI and P2 profiles, as the adult peak is in the 28-34 year range, perhaps indicating a higher death rate for adults compared with PI.
The P2 mean age is c. 15.5 years - a figure also affected by a large number of subadults, especially under 4 years o f age. A 'U-shaped* dip is present for older child and young juvenile categories, showing an increase in mortality from 15+ age categories. The 15+
age categories generally follow the same pattern as the overall sample, with a peak occurring after 21 years.
To calculate life expectancies (i.e. survivorship, not mortality rate) for the cemetery population, a series of life tables are presented [table 4.14]. Age category counts are normalized into equal 5 year intervals so that the survivorship [fig. 4.21] and life expectancy curves [fig. 4.22] can be compared with those from other sites (e.g. Rolston 1986: figs. 98, 100). The advantage o f these calculations over the mean age at death, is a more accurate age at death that is not skewed by fluctuating numbers o f subadults in the population.
The survivorship curve shown in figure 4.21 shows a comparatively high survivorship for PI. The higher subadult survivorship is partly a reflection of their scarcity in the sample.
In P2, life expectancy is slightly lower [fig. 4.22], with the biggest change at c.30 years o f age.
Life expectancy from late adolescence is provided here - representing the age at which a 15 year old individual is likely to survive until. For the Pcomb sample, a 15 year old is likely to survive until c.30 years o f age. Little variation was present for the separate
periods - PI at 31 years, and P2 at 28 years. This shows that members of the Sa'idiyeh population were likely to die slightly younger in P2 than in PI, although only by a small margin.
The results are similar to that found for Baq'ah Valley cave A4, with a life expectancy for adults at 30 years (Saul 1986: 314). By contrast, a fairly high life expectancy o f 38 years was found for the LBII Cave B3 (Rolston 1986: 305). A low life-expectancy is also found at Tell el-Mazar (Disi et al 1984: 186-189), although this is somewhat higher than the Sa’idiyeh cemetery due to the under-representation o f subadults at that site. A low life expectancy is also found at Pella in T.88 and T.89, with few adults found over the age of 50 (Hendrix 2004). In stable pre-industrial populations based on agrarian subsistence, one might expect mature and older adult categories (i.e. 35 +) to be somewhat better represented (Rega 1996: 235-236). These findings could be due to several factors: the systematic under-ageing o f human remains by osteologists; different burial locations for mature and older age groups; and positive checks that led to low life expectancy such as diet, famine, disease and conflict. These latter factors cannot yet be assessed, as pathological and diet related observations are beyond the focus of this thesis.
4.4.2 Osteolo2ical sex and sex-specific age at death
The distribution of individuals with available sex estimations [Table 4.15, fig. 4.23], utilizes data for individuals o f sexable age (c. 15 + years41). As with the above age category distribution, ‘total’ and ‘articulated’ samples are utilized. A striking feature is the high proportion o f individuals o f indeterminate sex. Over 50% o f individuals of sexable age do not have sex estimations42. Despite these limitations, the distribution does show a fairly balanced ratio between males and females in Pcomb samples. Charts for PI and P2 separately are not included here, as they exhibited little difference compared to the overall sample. The only potential variation is found in P2, which has a slightly higher male to female ratio [Table 4.15]. ‘Possible’ sex estimates are merged with
‘probable’ estimates to increase sample sizes, although not without risk of inaccuracy.
Using this calculation, the male: female ratio is balanced in PI (50: 50), although there is a bias towards males in P2 (60: 40). It should be noted here that with such a large sample of unsexed individuals present - these results should be treated with caution [fig. 4.23].
Higher male to female ratios are attested in Baq’ah Valley Cave A4, and in other ancient Near Eastern populations (Saul 1986: 314, citing Arensburg 1973, Disi et al 1984).
Male sex bias can also relate to differential survival due to higher bone density of male human remains compared with female remains (Walker 1995).
Table 4.16 shows the distribution o f sexed individuals within mean estimated age categories, for all periods. The mean age at death for adult males is c. 33.9 years (median c. 34.8), and the female mean is slightly lower at c. 30.1 years (median c. 24.5 years).
The difference could suggest a lower average age-at-death for adult females, perhaps due to the stresses and risks o f pregnancy and childbirth. In utero foetal remains were found in female burials T.l 19, T.123A (Pritchard 1980: 22, 23), and T.459A (Tubb et al 1996:
21-23) indicating that these women had died during the latter stages o f pregnancy or during childbirth. Differences in sex-specific age at death are also attested in Baqah Valley Caves B3 and A4. Pregnancy trauma and childbirth difficulties were cited as potential factors reducing female longevity by upto 5 years in comparison to males in LBA Cave B3 (Rolston 1986: 303). A lower life-expectancy for females (17-25 years) compared with males (25-35 years), is also noted for Iron Age Cave A4 (Saul 1986: 314).
At Pella in T.88 and T.89, there are a higher proportion of females in the tombs (Hendrix 2004), which could indicate a higher mortality rate for females. Sex-specific preservation bias could also be a factor in the reduced identification of older females in populations (Walker 1995).
4.43 Summary o f osteological findings
A mixture o f different age categories and the balance o f males to females suggest that the majority of the cemetery population consisted of family groups in both periods. The Pcomb population profile confirms a high mortality rate for the youngest age categories, although the numbers o f neonates and infants would be expected to be higher, in keeping with population profiles from most preindustrial societies. The relatively low numbers of newborns and infants in PI suggests that an alternative mortuary rite, burial method and/or burial area was favoured for these groups. This no longer appears to be the case in P2, as more adults and infants are found buried alongside each other in tombs (although subadults are still under-represented).
Life expectancy for adults is low (c.28-31 years) showing similarity with Baq’ah Valley Cave A4, where adults were expected to reach c.30 years of age. At this stage, factors contributing to this low life expectancy are unclear, and require further study. Given the apparent attitudes towards separation of the youngest age groups, it is possible that some
older individuals were buried elsewhere, thus reducing the mean age at death, although factors relating to diet and disease are most probably the cause for the generally low life expectancy.
A lower mean age at death for females than males is noted which could be partly due to the rigours o f pregnancy and childbirth. A special diet for males is suggested to explain this finding for Baq’ah Valley Cave B3 (Rolston 1986: 303), and could also be considered for the Sa’idiyeh cemetery. Meyers posits that lower life expectancies for females in the child-bearing years during the Bronze and Iron Ages, would in turn would lead to the ability of males to attain ‘chronological seniority’, forming the basis o f political seniority and leadership (1978: 95). It is also suggested by Meyers in her assessment of gender dynamics from Biblical sources, that increased demands upon females in the Iron Age to reproduce children were linked to factors such as high infant mortality, and the desire to transmit inheritance within the family between generations (ibid.: 98-99). In summary, the evidence from Sa’idiyeh supports a model o f gender inequity in life and death, which becomes potentially more marked in the EIA phases.
4.4.4 Age/sex distribution bv tomb-tvpe
This section utilizes osteological age and sex data associated with tomb-types. Table 4.17 and figure 4.24 show the distribution of general age adult and subadult categories by tomb-type. Table 4.18 presents counts of mean age sub-categories (i.e. from neonate to old adult) to detect more detailed associations in tomb use for different age groups for the Pcomb sample only. The subadult/adult ratios for pits and cists show a general similarity overall (0.44-0.48: 1.0). A slightly more balanced ratio is found for DPBs (0.7: 1.0) than pits and cists. Jar burials are associated with subadults (9.2: 1.0), with jars associated with subadults between 0-8 years, particularly for infants between 0-4 years43. This suggests a dependent relationship between age (and size) and choice o f interment in a single jar. Two examples o f bowl burials not included in table 4.18, were used for an infant [T.74] and a newborn [T.52], showing similarity with jar burials in the use of a large ceramic vessel to cover, enclose or contain the body.
Table 4.17 also shows the subadult/adult distributions for PI and P2 separately. The low subadult:adult ratio for pit burials in PI (0.24: 1.0) reflects a generally low proportion of subadults in the sample. For PI, DPBs have a high subadult: adult ratio (0.63: 1.0), indicating that DPBs are used by both age groups. The small number o f cists are
exclusively used by adults, and jar burials are exclusive to subadults. The P2 distributions and ratios are more varied. Subadults slightly exceed the numbers o f adults found in DPBs (1.40: 1.0), whereas cists (0.5: 1.0) and pits (0.6: 1.0) contained fewer subadults than adults. P2 jar burials are strongly associated with subadult remains (11.5:
1.0).
To summarize, there is continuity in the use o f pits and DPBs for adults and subadults together, and the use o f single jars almost exclusively for subadults (<8 years). PI cists contain adults only, whereas both adults and subadults were placed in cists in P2. It is unclear whether there was a real change in the broadening o f age categories o f cist occupants in P2 to include younger age categories, as only three cists in total are attributed to PI. For pits, the distribution is well balanced across this age group. For specific age ranges, a feature o f PI pit burials is the apparent absence o f subadults under 4 years, despite their presence in DPBs and jar burials. There are, however, some examples of infants alongside adults in PI pit burials [e.g. T.222]. For P2, this age category is well-represented in pit burials, perhaps confirming the interpretation that most newborns and infants in PI were buried elsewhere or were accorded different treatments.
Preservation and retrieval factors are not ruled out, as many P2 infants were found with adults in the same tomb. If interred in separate pits or shallow pits, there may have been fewer infants detected and retrieved in PI overall.
Table 4.19 presents the tomb-type distributions for individuals o f sexable age for all periods, showing that there is no sex specific use of tomb-types, at least for individuals
>15 years old. Males and females are found in generally balanced proportions within pits, cists, DPBs and sherd burials, although a large number of indeterminate individuals are also present. There is a slight association between cists and males, particularly in Period 2, with 17 males and 9 females [table 4.19].
4.4.5 Aze/sex distribution by cemetery area
General subadult and adult ages cemetery area and period are examined in terms o f ‘total’
and ‘articulated’ samples [Table 4.20]. For the Pcomb sample, the proportions o f adults exceed subadults in the North (0.5: 1.0) and Central areas (0.7: 1.0), although a more balanced ratio is present in the South area (1.0: 1.0). For PI, slightly lower ratios (0.4:
1.0) are present for the North and Central areas, perhaps due to retrieval and preservation differences. For P2, the pattern appears to be an increase in the proportion of subadults to
adults in moving from North to South, a factor perhaps linked to chronological developments in the cemetery, which sees a general shift from North to South between PI and P2. The limited number o f P2 subadults in the North area also exhibits a different pattern of use compared with the Central and South areas. Chi-squared values for P2 [Table 4.21] between the North and Central areas (0.07) and the North and South areas (0.02), demonstrate significant relationships between age and cemetery area, with a higher than expected number o f adults in the North area. Other tests on period /area combinations did not yield significant results.
adults in moving from North to South, a factor perhaps linked to chronological developments in the cemetery, which sees a general shift from North to South between PI and P2. The limited number o f P2 subadults in the North area also exhibits a different pattern of use compared with the Central and South areas. Chi-squared values for P2 [Table 4.21] between the North and Central areas (0.07) and the North and South areas (0.02), demonstrate significant relationships between age and cemetery area, with a higher than expected number o f adults in the North area. Other tests on period /area combinations did not yield significant results.