LA BARBARIE NEOLIBERAL

TYPES OF FOREIGN TEACHING OUTSIDE

LANGUAGE DECADE OF INTRODUCTION OF FOREIGN THE SCOPE OF

TEACHER LANGUAGES IN THE MINIMUM CURRICULUM THE MINIMUM

(1998/99) CURRICULUM (1998/99) 1970s and earlier 1980s 1990s Generalist teacher L, S NL, A UK (SC) B nl LI F (pupils aged 5-8) UK (NI)

Semi-specialist teacher DK P (2nd_{stage of}

ensino básico)

Generalist or semi- NO (throughout specialist teacher grunnskole)

Specialist subject NO (2nd_{stage of EL, E BG, HU, PL, SK}

teacher grunnskole) RO

Generalist teacher B de B fr, F (pupils aged 8-11) D, IRL

or specialist subject I UK (E/W)

teacher CZ, EE, LV, LT SI

Semi-specialist teacher or specialist subject teacher

Three types possible FIN P (1st_{stage of}

IS ensino básico)

CY

Source: Eurydice.

Explanatory note

In this figure, only countries that offer foreign languages in primary school (ISCED 1) as a compulsory subject included in the minimum curriculum (orange in the diagrams in Chapter 3) are listed in the columns for 1970s and earlier, 1980s and 1990s. Other countries are listed in the right-hand column, which indicates that foreign language teaching is organised outside the scope of the minimum curriculum. In these countries, foreign lan- guage teaching may take place within the framework of the autonomy granted to schools (light blue and mauve in the diagrams in Chapter 3), of a pilot project (green), and/or of schools specialising in foreign languages (box drawn as a dotted line).

In the pre-accession countries (except Cyprus and Slovenia), Russian became the first compulsory foreign language in the late 1940s. In the Figure, however, some of these countries are listed in the column corresponding to the situation introduced during the 1990s. It is at the beginning of this decade that other foreign languages were included in their curricula.

Additional note

Portugal: In the 1970s, foreign language learning was compulsory from the age of 11, corresponding to the preparatory stage of secondary educa-

tion in the former education structure (Ciclo preparatório do ensino secundário). At the time, this level was part of ISCED 2.

In countries with an older tradition of foreign language teaching at primary level, foreign language teaching methodology has developed into a competency that all teachers at this level must possess. In contexts in which foreign languages are taught at all levels of education, young people finishing their primary school teacher training will have accumulated proficiency in foreign language(s) throughout their school careers, which will be supplemented with training in teaching methodology. In such coun- tries, a foreign language has been part of a primary school teacher’s cultural capital for almost 30 years now. In the Nordic countries, future primary school teachers will have studied at least one foreign lan-

guage (generally English) throughout most of their compulsory and upper secondary education. By the time they undertake initial teacher training, it is assumed that they have acquired command of the lan- guage, which is required to obtain the upper secondary education certificate.

The cultural capital of teachers from countries with a long tradition in foreign language teaching was constituted according to different models. The importance attributed by training institutions to lan- guage proficiency is a factor, but other elements may play a role as well. One of these is the linguistic context, which appears to be very important. For example, in Luxembourg, before future class teachers can enrol in a teacher training institute after secondary school, they must be proficient in the three offi- cial languages of their country. In the German-speaking Community of Belgium and in the Region of Brussels-Capital, primary school teachers must also teach French or Dutch. For this purpose, at the end of their teacher training, they must sit a special examination in these languages.

In Cyprus, the generalist teacher takes care of this teaching in most schools, although a semi-specialist teacher or a specialist subject teacher may also do so. The presence, at primary level, of a specialist teacher trained for the secondary level dates back to the late 1980s. At the time, unemployed sec- ondary education teachers applied to teach at the primary level, where there was a shortage of teach- ers. Those who were recruited had to attend an intensive training programme to be entitled to teach in primary school. However, this emergency solution is no longer applied, since the need subsided. Countries that introduced compulsory foreign language teaching at primary level in the 1980s devel- oped approaches that did not differ much from those of the previous group of countries. However, the context varies widely. In the Netherlands and Austria, compulsory language teaching is implemented in a way compatible with the existing structure, which provides for a generalist teacher responsible for all subjects. Conversely, in Portugal, foreign language teaching was introduced at primary level within the framework of reforms affecting the school system, the organisation of teaching and teacher training. Furthermore, those education reforms were implemented at the historical turning point of new inter- national and linguistic openness. In Portugal, a foreign language is one of the core subjects in the 2nd _{stage of ensino básico, in which subjects are taught by semi-specialist teachers responsible for sub-}

ject groups.

The countries that introduced compulsory foreign language teaching in the 1990s were confronted with a different situation. In the majority of cases, in-service primary school teachers lacked specific competencies in the field of foreign languages. These countries had to take this reality into considera- tion as well as the organisational changes brought about by the introduction of compulsory foreign lan- guage teaching at primary level. This applies in Scotland (3_{), where in-service generalist teachers must}

receive ad hoc training in order to teach a foreign language to their pupils at primary level. A specific training programme has been provided since 1993 (to support the introduction of compulsory foreign language teaching in primary schools). It focuses on the teacher’s active use of the foreign language in his/her interaction with pupils. This initiative endeavours to solve the problem of teacher training for pri- mary education teachers who found themselves involved in a form of education for which their initial teacher training had not prepared them. Currently, the initial training curriculum in teacher training institutes does not generally include sufficient language training to enable the teaching of foreign lan- guages in primary schools.

Liechtenstein also decided to entrust the responsibility of foreign language teaching to the generalist teacher, on the assumption that s/he possessed sufficient linguistic capital. The education authorities offer teachers the possibility of following in-service language training.

(3_{) In Scotland, the impact of pilot projects for foreign language teaching at the primary level was evaluated between 1991}

and 1993. Independent research concluded that foreign languages in primary schools are best taught by primary level teachers (University of Stirling (1995), Foreign Languages in Primary Schools: Evaluation of Scottish Pilot Projects, 1993- 1995).

The different solutions adopted by France to deal with the changes depend on the pupils’ age. From the outset, France has implemented the reform of 1992 by means of a variety of initiatives.

Many countries that have recently introduced foreign languages as compulsory subjects at the primary level recruit specialist teachers to teach them. They are generally trained to teach at the secondary level. This is the case in Greece, Spain, and Romania. In Spain, language teaching in primary schools is entrusted to specialist teachers trained to teach foreign languages at that level. This decision was enshrined in LOGSE (Ley Orgánica de Ordenación General del Sistema Educativo) of 1990, which rede- fined the initial qualifications required to teach at the different levels. A Maestro specialises in teaching foreign languages.

In another group of countries, generalist as well as specialist teachers may teach foreign languages. That is the case in the French Community of Belgium, France (pupils aged 8-11), Italy, the Czech Republic, Estonia, and Lithuania. The French Community of Belgium, which added a foreign language to the group of compulsory subjects in the primary education curriculum in 1998, relies on language teachers at lower secondary level to teach foreign languages. In Italy, the teachers of each primary school distribute the teaching among themselves according to needs. In each school, the foreign lan- guage may be taught either by a generalist teacher who teaches foreign languages besides other sub- jects, or by a specialist of the foreign language to be taught. The latter teaches only the target lan- guage, in several classes. This decision was taken in the context of the reform of primary education of 1990 (4_{) which, among other changes, organised teaching in such a way that two or three primary}

school teachers shared out the subjects between them in each class. An important reform of initial teacher training supplemented this innovation: it was transferred to the university level of tertiary edu- cation, and the foreign language was introduced as a compulsory subject in the teacher training cur- riculum.

In the pre-accession countries, the solution of specialist subject teachers has been the most widespread for several decades. These countries have a particular historical situation. For a long time, Russian was taught as a compulsory language in schools. However, as pointed out in Chapter 2, in the early 1990s Russian became one foreign language among others in the school curricula of these countries. To meet the new demands resulting from this change, these countries continued to entrust foreign language teaching to specialist subject teachers. In 1997, a new specialisation in foreign languages was intro- duced in faculties that train primary school teachers in Bulgaria. In the near future, the primary level will have its own specialist subject teachers in foreign languages, without having to resort to teachers from the secondary level. The Baltic States are the exception: foreign language teaching is preferably entrusted to the generalist teacher. In Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, a specialist subject teacher is called in when the generalist teacher does not know the foreign language. In Lithuania since 1998/99, gen- eralist teachers may obtain an additional qualification to teach foreign languages at the primary level. In countries where the organisation of primary-level curricula is somewhat flexible, foreign language teaching has become widespread in schools even when organised outside the scope of the minimum curriculum. Countries have adopted different solutions to meet the ensuing demand. In Germany, Ireland, the United Kingdom (England and Wales), and Slovenia, generalist and specialist teachers may coexist. In Portugal, all three categories of teacher may teach foreign languages in the 1st _{stage of}

ensino básico. In Germany, each school may call upon specialist or generalist teachers. In the latter case,

they may either have attended specific in-service training in foreign language teaching or taken a for- eign language as an additional subject during initial teacher training, accredited by an examination. In the United Kingdom (England, Wales, Northern Ireland), primary schools that have chosen to introduce foreign languages are sometimes able to use their existing staff flexibly, to enable a generalist teacher with foreign language skills to teach the language to more than one class. In other cases (England and

(4_{) An important contextual factor, which policy-makers took into account at the time, was the surplus of primary school}

Wales), they may employ a part-time specialist teacher. More often, language teaching in primary schools has been introduced as part of an initiative in a local area in which generalist teachers also receive in-service training and continuing support from the local education authority (England and Wales) or Education and Library Board (Northern Ireland). In England, some secondary schools specialise in foreign languages and may offer support to local primary schools. In 1999, the government made funds available in England and Wales to support existing initiatives and encourage new projects. Finally, in Slovenia, where specialist subject teachers have been the most widespread for decades, edu- cation authorities have recently offered generalist teachers the opportunity to follow specialised mod- ules in foreign language teaching at an early age. This early teaching is one of the novelties introduced by the new primary school structure phased in from 1999/2000.

1.3. R

F

L

T

At the secondary level, where foreign language teaching has been compulsory for a long time now, recruitment is no longer a major challenge for policy makers in most countries: the solution adopted everywhere is that of recruitment based on competitive examination or qualifications. Conversely, the initiatives taken to recruit foreign language teachers at the primary level show the diversity of possible solutions.

This section will therefore focus on selection and recruitment methods for foreign language teachers at primary level, where several alternatives coexist. One must first distinguish those countries where the recruitment method applied matches only the professional qualifications sought, i.e. countries selecting their teaching staff on the basis of qualifications obtained after graduating from their initial training or passing a national or regional competitive examination.

Figure 4.3 shows that the most widespread access to the teaching profession is through selection based on applicants’ qualifications providing evidence of their language proficiency, either because they mention some kind of specialisation in this field or because the curriculum followed includes compul- sory foreign language courses. In Austria, primary level teachers recruited for that purpose have grad- uated from the Pädagogische Akademie where training is given in foreign languages. In Finland, when the curriculum is drawn up within the school, the subject ‘foreign languages’ is assigned to those who hold a diploma specifying that they specialised in the relevant language.

Some countries only recruit teaching staff trained to teach foreign languages at secondary level. This applies, for example, to most pre-accession countries and to the Flemish and German-speaking Communities of Belgium. Graduates from teacher-training institutes in these countries hold a qualifica- tion that formally acknowledges their specific training in foreign languages. In the German-speaking Community of Belgium, aspiring primary school teachers must sit a special language examination to obtain the qualification required to teach the language in their class. In the French Community of Belgium, the specialist language teacher holds the title of ‘qualified teacher for the lower secondary education level’ (agrégé de l’enseignement secondaire inférieur), Germanic languages department, sup- plemented by a certificate of ability to teach a foreign language at primary level. Generalist teachers may sit a special examination outside the scope of their initial training and thus become eligible to teach foreign languages at primary level.

Recruitment based on competitive examination is a less widespread option. Countries that resort to this practice largely meet their teaching staff needs, so that they do not use any further recruitment method. The competitive examination is a test, usually organised at the national level, whereby a num- ber of applicants compete for a limited number of vacancies. Spain organises competitive examinations for teachers of each foreign language taught. In Luxembourg, knowledge of at least three languages is a necessary condition for admission to the competitive examination.

In Greece, an important reform has recently modified the recruitment method for teaching staff. Until 1997, the recruitment of foreign language teachers at primary and secondary level was exclusively based on a waiting list. This meant that teachers were recruited on the basis of the date of their appli- cation for appointment in state schools. From 1998 to 2002, national examinations are also being organised for the purpose of selecting teachers. From 2003 onward, the competitive examination will be the only recruitment method for foreign language teachers at primary and secondary levels.

Countries that have to cope with a shortage of qualified language teachers for primary level may opt for supplementary in-service training for primary level teachers who did not receive initial

training in foreign languages. An alternative is to recruit teaching staff without formal teaching qualifications who are proficient in the foreign language.

Germany, the United Kingdom and Lithuania opted for the first solution: primary level teachers are encouraged to attend a supplementary in-service training programme in foreign languages. In Germany, for example, the generalist teacher may have had the opportunity to receive specific in-ser- vice training to teach foreign languages or to take a foreign language as an additional subject during his/her initial teacher training, accredited by an examination. In the United Kingdom (England, Wales, Northern Ireland), schools are free to recruit teachers in very different ways. For example, a school may turn to its generalist staff for teachers with foreign language skills and assign them to teach several classes, or call upon teachers that teach in several schools. More often, generalist teachers receive train- ing and continuing support through local initiatives. In some areas, these initiatives provide for the ser- vices of specialist foreign language teachers at secondary level.

The second solution is to recruit teaching staff without formal teaching qualifications who are proficient in the foreign language. Bulgaria and the Czech Republic resort to this emergency solution when their staff qualified in foreign language teaching cannot meet the demand. In general, they call upon native speakers who are residents of that country or university students from the last years, specialising in the relevant subjects. In Bulgaria, pilot projects to teach foreign languages at primary level have been con- ducted since 1993, mobilising teachers with a great variety of qualifications. At first, foreign language teaching was entrusted to secondary level specialist subject teachers. However, primary level teachers proficient in the foreign language and qualified to teach at secondary level, native speakers, and for- eign students registered in Bulgarian universities are also eligible. In the Czech Republic, a new curricu- lum for specialist subject teachers in foreign languages at primary level is in the process of being imple- mented. At present, recruitment is based on a qualification to teach at secondary level. In case of short- age, staff without proper qualifications who are proficient in foreign languages may also be recruited. As shown in Figure 4.3, several countries implement diversified recruitment policies whereby the afore- mentioned solutions coexist. This is the case in France, Italy, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Estonia, Latvia, Slovenia and Slovakia.

Thus France implements several recruitment methods: 45% of the teachers responsible for foreign lan- guage teaching at primary level come from the secondary level, 45% are primary-level teachers whose capacity to teach the foreign language has been formally validated, and the remaining 10% are accred- ited external recruits. In Liechtenstein, education authorities can, whenever necessary, also recruit native speakers or other teaching staff without qualifications who are proficient in the language. In Estonia, when there is a shortage of specialist teachers, any staff member capable of teaching a language is eli-