Consideraciones generales

In all countries of the Mediterranean basin except Portugal, compulsory education is divided into two stages (primary and secondary). The secondary level proposes a core curriculum of general education, with some internal diversification possibilities through a system of options for some of the subjects. Compulsory foreign language teaching at primary level is a relatively recent development in the educa- tion systems of these countries. In the past few decades, however, considerable efforts have been made

(5_{) Schools can moreover offer other languages such as Finnish or Sami. Pupils can also elect to study the language that they}

to change this situation. Thus, with the exception of Portugal (6_{) and Cyprus, the Mediterranean coun-}

tries introduced foreign languages as compulsory subjects at primary level in the late 1980s or early 1990s. On the other hand, the teaching of classical languages is given high priority at secondary level in the Italian, Greek and Spanish curricula.

Moreover, all these countries offer a relatively wide choice of first foreign languages, except Greece and Cyprus where English is mandatory.

In Spain, the absence of foreign languages in the curricula of the ordinary school system was compen- sated by a long-standing tradition of teaching foreign languages outside schools. At the beginning of the 20th_{century (in 1911) Spain set up the Escuelas Oficiales de Idiomas, the first public establishments}

devoted exclusively to foreign language teaching. At the time, this type of parallel network represented a major innovation in the area of language teaching in Spain. It was also unique in Europe, and pointed to strong motivation for acquiring foreign language proficiency. These schools multiplied spectacularly over the 1980s and 1990s (7_{), so that now many towns and even villages have their own Escuela Oficial}

de Idiomas. For many years, the Escuelas Oficiales de Idiomas also trained specialist foreign language

teachers at both secondary and university level.

From 1970, with the introduction of EGB (Educación General Básica) and the approval of new educa- tional strategies, French and English were introduced as optional subjects in the first stage of EGB (ages 6-9). In practice, however, these subjects were generally introduced at the age of 8-9 or even later (10-11). Before then, few pupils were exposed to foreign languages at school.

The range of foreign languages taught in secondary schools also changed, in keeping with trends in pupils’ choices. French was dominant until the early 1970s, when it began to be supplanted by English, which is now the first foreign language taught.

In 1975 compulsory teaching of a first foreign language was extended to the new Bachillerato Unificado

y Polivalente and the Curso de Orientación Universitaria (14-18 age-group). Since then, all schools must

also offer an optional second foreign language. With the law on the organisation of the education sys- tem of 1990, learning a foreign language became compulsory in primary schools for the first time, from the age of 8 instead of 11.

In Portugal, primary school attendance for children aged 7-12 became compulsory in 1960. Compulsory education was lengthened by two years in 1965. In 1967, these two extra years became a ‘common preparatory stage for secondary school’, including compulsory teaching of either French or English for all. The reform of 1947 had already made foreign languages compulsory for Ensino Liceal pupils, from the age of 11. The pace of reform was slowed down by the political upheavals of the 1970s (the ‘Carnation Revolution’). The law on the education system of 1986, which came into effect in 1987/88, extended the duration of compulsory schooling to nine years (ages 6-15). Following this law, the cur- riculum reform of 1989 made the second foreign language optional from the age of 12.

The rapid change that currently affects compulsory teaching of foreign languages in the Mediterranean countries is perhaps best illustrated by the situation in Italy. The teaching of the first foreign language at lower secondary level became compulsory for all pupils only in 1962, with the introduction of the

scuola media unica (11-14 age-group). In the old scuola media, the first foreign language had been

compulsory only in certain types of education.

(6_{) In Portugal, in the 1970s, foreign language learning was compulsory from the age of 11, corresponding to the prepara-}

tory stage of secondary education in the former education structure (Ciclo preparatório do ensino secundário). At the time, this level was part of ISCED 2.

(7_{) In 1974/75 there were six Escuelas Oficiales de Idiomas in the whole country; in 1984/85 there were 13, and in 1998/99}

Thirty years later, in 1992, one foreign language was made compulsory in primary school, from the age of 7 onward. However, a lack of qualified teachers means that only 65% of schools are able to provide this teaching, which is unevenly distributed across the country. Nevertheless, Italians set great store by early language learning.

In Greece, foreign language teaching has also gained momentum in recent decades. Until the intro- duction of English in 1955-1960, only one foreign language, French, was taught at the secondary level. In 1992/93, foreign language teaching was included in the primary school curriculum (comprehensive 6-year curriculum for the teaching of English to pupils from the 4th _{year of primary school to the}

3rd_{year of Gymnasio) and English became compulsory. A second compulsory foreign language (French}

or German) was introduced in the Gymnasio in 1993. In 1996/97, German was introduced in the Lykeio (upper secondary level). In 1998/99, a foreign language chosen among the three on offer at this level (English, French, or German) became compulsory in the Eniaio Lykeio.

Two countries stand out in this group owing to a longer tradition of foreign language teaching. In France, compulsory teaching of a foreign language dates back to the foundation of the national edu- cation system (Éducation nationale) in the 1880s. In the 1970s, efforts were made to facilitate the learn- ing and extend the offer of a second foreign language, which had long been compulsory in general education. In 1998 the second language, which may be a foreign or regional language, became com- pulsory for all pupils aged 13-14 attending a collège. The recent introduction of compulsory foreign lan- guage teaching at the primary level (1992), which is still being phased in, brings France closer to the other Mediterranean countries and justifies its inclusion in this group.

Cyprus is characterised by the unassailable dominance of English, which was used even as a language of instruction at primary school from 1878 onwards, during British colonial rule. Since independence, English has been taught as a compulsory foreign language at the primary level, from the age of 9 onward. As regards other languages, French prevails in the secondary school curriculum. Since 1996, French is compulsory from the first year of lower secondary school, the gymnasio, which starts at around 12 years of age. Before that, it used to be compulsory from the age of 14. French is also com- pulsory in the upper secondary school (Lykeio). As can be seen, for historical reasons, the situation of foreign language teaching in Cyprus is similar to that of the English-speaking countries.