Dimensión psicosocial de la identidad sexual

Within the Natural England Natural Character Area Profile report, opportunities for improving climate change mitigation is proposed in the form of the SEO. Woodland expansion is mentioned within this statement as a suitable approach to improving climate change mitigation within this landscape (Natural England 2010) – figure 15. In the NCA’s current state, carbon is stored in the vegetation and soil. The peaty soils of the area are estimated to be roughly 40% of the NCA area. However, only 10% of these soils are deemed to be storing a large amount of carbon in blanket bog, due to the challenging steep terrain and therefore shallow soils (NE 2014). Furthermore, the vegetation - mainly acid grassland, heath and bracken cover also contribute to carbon storage (Natural England 2010). Emissions of GHG are likely to occur over the organic soils due to drainage (Alonso et al. 2012; Nicholson T. 2016, personal communications, 1 May). The pastoral grazing of primarily sheep, cattle and horses, contribute to GHG emissions in form of Methane (CH4_{) (Le Mer & Roger 2001; Richmond et al. 2015).}

Although most of the grazed fields are not improved, the lower slopes are being fertilised and, as a result, Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions will occur (Richmond et al. 2015; Nicholson T. 2016,

SEO 1: Conserve, enhance and restore the tranquil, open, unenclosed fells, with their dramatic seasonal colours and textures, mix of upland habitats and active fluvial features, for their national recreation value, their geomorphological interest and their biodiversity. Encourage quiet recreation focussed on enjoyment and appreciation of these features, while improving water quality, reducing soil erosion and mitigating climate change. For example, by:

Restoring, expanding and encouraging management of gill, as well as ancient woodland and other broadleaved woodlands and wood pasture, especially on slopes which are covered with bracken and thus have suitable soil, but avoiding the high ridges and areas of geological, biodiversity or historical interest. This will increase woodland connectivity, enhance biodiversity and landscape interest, reduce soil erosion, improve water quality and produce local wood fuel and wood products.

SEO 2: Conserve and enhance the pastoral lower slopes and valleys with their complex of field patterns, hedges and drystone walls; their range of pasture types, including northern hay meadows, purple moor-grass, species-rich verges, woodlands, and waterside and boundary trees; and their dispersed farmsteads and villages, to conserve upland farming culture and to enhance landscape character and biodiversity.

For example, by:

Restoring and expanding broadleaved woodlands, riparian woodland and wood pasture, ideally through natural regeneration and use of local provenance and locally grown seed – especially on slopes that are covered with bracken and thus have suitable soil, and also in the lower river valley areas (but avoiding areas of geological, biodiversity or historical interest). Such restoration and expansion will increase woodland connectivity, improve biodiversity and landscape interest, increase carbon capture, and reduce run-off and soil erosion.

Encouraging management of existing woodlands, to provide a local wood fuel/biomass supply by developing open glades, encouraging natural regeneration and leaving patches of deadwood, to enhance biodiversity.

Encouraging use of a wide range of locally native species suitable for the ground conditions in new woodland and existing upland ash woods, to reduce reliance on ash. Examples of appropriate native species include rowan, hazel, holly, alder, hawthorn, blackthorn, bird cherry, crab apple and oak. This will increase resilience to climate change and ash die-back and will encourage re-establishment of black grouse.

Figure 15 - Statement of Environmental Opportunity (SEO), which is relevant to woodland creation, within the Howgill Fells NCA. SEOs are used as guidelines by Natural England and the Forestry Commission to ensure that any development or environmental land management takes into consideration the characteristics of the area when proposing changes within it

3.3.1.2 Water-related services

The Lune catchment covers 1,300 km2_{, extending from the Howgills NCA in the northeast down}

through the Yorkshire Dales in the east, Morecambe Bay in the west to Cockerham Moss in the south (EA 2014)- figure 16. It is a catchment of both steep slopes in the north and west and flat terrain in the east and south. The most influential river in the catchment is the river Lune, which runs through the whole catchment from the north to the south (Natural England 2010). Several larger tributaries terminate at the river Lune, such as the Rawthey, Greta and Wenning. There are several minor settlements in the catchment, such as Carnforth and Calgate and one large urban area - Lancaster. All of these settlements are in the downstream reaches of the catchment (Agency 2014).

The Howgills Fells NCA has experienced flooding in past and current times. The most recent 2015 flood event caused flooding in Tebay, Sedbergh and isolated incidents at farms and rural properties. Tebay village experienced 13 properties flooded which was primarily caused by Tebay Gill Beck bursting its banks and further increased by the River Lune overflowing from the north and surface water from blocked highway drainage (Council 2016a). Anecdotal evidence from local consultation carried out by Environment Agency discovered that Tebay had been flooded twice before, once with the same level of flooding 40 years ago and once at a smaller scale during the summer of 1950 (Council 2016a). Sedbergh also has a history of being affected by flooding. In recent times, the town has been flooded in 2000, 2005, 2009 and 2015. The 2015 floods were mainly caused by several water courses feeding into the main water course that runs through the town which resulted in several areas within the town flooding. Sedbergh is surrounded by steep local topography and as such is prone to flash floods by surface water run offs (Council 2016b).

Figure 16 – Lune catchment with the Howgill Fells NCA position within the catchment enclosed

3.3.1.3 Nature-based recreation

The NCA experiences approximately 300,000 visitors a year (Tourism 2015) and tourism is an important source of income to the area, evidenced by the many local farms in the area that have in recent years diversified their income stream by offering accommodation via camp-sites, B&Bs and self-catering options. According to (Tourism 2015) the motivations for visiting are varied, but the top four reasons are: ‘Because of the physical scenery and landscape’ (61%), ‘Because of the atmospheric characteristics of the area – peaceful, relaxing, beautiful etc.’ (40%) and ‘Been before’ (37%), followed by ‘Undertaking a specific activity’ (19%). Under this category, most participants stated that ‘walking’ was the specified activity. 96% stated that, ‘It is a good place for outdoor activities’. Additionally, the majority of visitors stated that they, ‘Very much so’ or ‘quite a lot’ felt physically (85%) and mentally (90%) better after their visit. The natural environment and landscape are therefore very important in terms of sustaining this industry.

3.3.1.4 Cultivated goods

The majority of the land area within the NCA is used for pastoral agriculture grazed by livestock and managed by hill farms. There are currently 36 farms within the NCA and these have declined in numbers over the years, partly due to farms being bought up and combined, a lack of a next generation to carry on from a retired generation and changes in farming traditions. This decline in farm numbers is an issue that exists at a national level in the UK uplands (Reed et al. 2009). Sheep, cattle and fell ponies are the main grazers in the area. The NCA has a strong farming cultural identity and many farming families have been in the area for many generations. Sheep reared in the area mainly produce breeding ewes to be sent to the lowlands where they are highly valued for their tough resilience, efficiency in terms of feed and good maternal instincts. Here they will be bred with lowland breeds for higher meat yield in production (Mansfield 2012).