La problemática en torno a la cuantificación

Yin  (2009)  argues  that  the  aim  of  data  analysis  is  to  treat  collated  evidences  fairly  and   produce   analytical   conclusions.   Similarly,   Flick   (2007)   stressed   that   the   aim   of   qualitative  analysis  is  to  identify,  compare  and  examine  patterns  and  themes,  in  order  to   interpret   these   patterns/themes.   Despite   the   aim,   Saunders   et   al   (2009)   and   Robson   (2002)   argue   that   there   are   no   clear   or   accepted   techniques   or   set   rules   regarding   analysing   qualitative   data.     For   instance,   Yin   (2009)   recommends   four   techniques   for   analysing   qualitative   data:   pattern-­‐   matching,   time   series,   program,   logic   and   explanation   building.   While   authors   like   Braun   and   Clarke   (2006);   Elo   and   Kyngas   (2008),   Hsieh   and   Shannon   (2005)   identify   thematic   and   content   analyses   as   appropriate   techniques   in   analysing   qualitative   data.   However,   one   major   problem   of   qualitative   data   analysis   according   to   Easterby-­‐Smith   et   al   (2008)   is   the   difficulty   encountered  in  data  reduction  to  meaningful  conclusions,  from  different  sources.  This   study   adopts   content   analysis   in   analysing   data   with   justifications   for   the   use   of   this   technique.  

Content  analysis  involves  organizing  communication  content  or  text  data  in  a  manner   that   allows   easy   identification,   indexing   or   retrieval   of   content   relevant   to   research   questions.   This   is   done   through   the   objective   and   systematic   application   of   categorization  rules  (classifying  words  or  phrases  with  the  same  meaning  into  different   categories)   into   data   that   can   be   clearly   summarised   and   compared   (Graneheim   and  

Lundman,   2004:106).     Similarly,   Prasad   (2008)   defines   content   analysis   as   the   subjective   interpretation   of   text   data   through   the   systematic   classification   procedure   and  the  identification  of  patterns.  This  content  or  text  data  might  be  in  verbal,  electronic   or  print  form  which  could  be  obtained  from  narrative  sources,  interviews,  observation,   open-­‐ended   survey   questions   as   well   as   from   books   and   print   materials   (Hsieh   and   Shannon,  2005).  Using  content  analysis  enables  the  researcher  generate  inferences  from   qualitative   data,   while   still   maintaining   the   richness   of   the   data   (Elo   and   Kyngas,   2008:108).  Hsieh  and  Shannon  (2005:  1279-­‐84)  identified  three  approaches  to  content   analysis:  conventional,  directed  and  summative  approach.    

The  conventional   approach   is   generally   appropriate   when   a   study   aims   to   describe   a   phenomenon  and  when  research  literature  on  the  event  is  limited,  so  codes/themes  are   generated  from  the  text  data;  similar  to  the  inductive  thematic  approach  of  Braun  and   Clarke   (2006).   The  directed   approach   aims   to   extend   conceptually   existing   theory   or   framework.   The   use   of   theory   as   a   guiding   point   in   this   approach   helps   focus   the   research   questions   and   permits   the   researcher   use   themes   from   literature   before   developing   new   themes   if   the   need   be.   In   essence,   this   approach   is   appropriate   for   studies  aiming  to  investigate  events  considered  incomplete  or  events  that  would  benefit   from   further   description.   In   addition,   this   approach   offers   flexibility   during   data   collection   by   creating   the   room   for   open-­‐ended   and   probing   question.     Finally,   the   summative  approach  considers  quantifying  certain  contents  in  the  text  data  with  the  aim   of  understanding  the  contextual  use  of  content.  It  is  primarily  appropriate  when  studies   undertaken  are  not  to  infer  meaning  but  to  explore  usage.  For  this  study,  the  directed   content   approach   has   been   utilised   for   the   following   reasons:   the   research   extends   existing  OL  theories  and  knowledge  to  selected  Universities  in  Nigeria  in  attempt  to  gain   in-­‐depth   understanding   of   learning   in   these   universities.   Additionally,   the   directed   approach  supports  the  use  of  targeted,  open-­‐ended  and  probing  questions  during  data   collection,   offering   the   researcher   more   flexibility.   The   use   of   directed   approach   has   helped   the   researcher   in   working   initially   with   themes   from   the   literature   before   developing   new   themes   as   the   analysis   progressed.   However,   the   major   limitation   of   this   approach   is   that  “overemphasis   on   the   theory   can   blind   researchers   to   contextual   aspects   of   the   phenomenon”   (Hsieh   and   Shannon,   2005:1283).   In   managing   this  

limitation,  the  researcher  analyses  contextual  contributions  presented  by  respondents   as  it  relates  to  research  questions.    

In   analysing   data   using   content   analysis,   the   researcher   followed   a   set   of   procedures:   transcription,   data   reduction,   data   display,   pattern   matching,   verification,   drawing   conclusion  suggested  by  Miles  and  Huberman  (1994),  Braun,  and  Clarke  (2006).    

ü At   the   transcription   phase   the   researcher   tried   to   listen   to   digital   recording   conversation   and   transcribed   after   interviews   conducted,   jotting   down   main   points   at   different   periods.   The   researcher   also   converted   scribbles   from   observation  to  some  form  of  written  record  (Seidman,  2013).    The  jotted  points   and  quotes  were  used  to  confirm  interviewees’  meanings  and  inferences;  as  well   as  those  from  observation,  similar  to  one  way  of  data  verification  explained  by   Miles  and  Huberman  (1994).  This  phase  enabled  the  researcher  get  familiar  with   the  data  as  she  had  to  listen  over  and  over  again  to  transcribe  and  also  she  had  to   read  the  data  several  times.    

ü The   research   ensured   all   collected   materials   from   primary   sources   are   being   properly   labelled   and   referenced.   Transcribed   data   has   been   reduced   by   categorising   interviewees   responses   according   to   questions   and   universities   to   identify   responses   required   in   answering   research   questions.   Initially,   the   researcher   made   use   of   working   themes   from   the   literature   as   oppose   developing  new  themes  as  explained  by  Hsieh  and  Shannon  (2005)  in  the  use  of   directed   content   analysis.   Interviewee   responses   were   further   classified   based   on  predetermined  themes  from  the  literature  in  each  university,  drawing  similar   themes  together,  enabling  the  researcher  identify  related  themes.  Similarly,  data   from   observation   and   evidences   from   other   sources   have   been   categorised   according   to   themes.   While   data   without   predetermined   themes   were   categorised   according   to   temporal   themes   developed   from   data   under   the   universities.   The   researcher   read   obtained   data   in   comparison   to   the   classification  for  clarification  and  verification.    

ü The  researcher  further  developed  sub-­‐themes  from  broad  themes  as  these  have   been  identified  to  be  unique  to  case  studies  and  therefore  considered  relevant  to   be   sub-­‐categorised.   For   instance,   integrated   OLMs   as   a   broad   theme   from   the   literature   was   further   sub-­‐categorised   into   classroom   meetings,   training,  

meetings   as   sub-­‐themes   or   kinds   of   integrated   OLMs   (OLMs)   identified   in   selected   universities.   This   sub-­‐categorisation   has   also   been   done   to   broad   themes   developed   from   data.   Themes   and   their   sub-­‐categories   have   been   displayed  in  tables  in  the  appendix.  

ü Data   from   interviews,   observation   and   other   sources   are   then   interpreted   and   presented  (analysed)  according  to  themes  and  sub-­‐themes  with  the  inclusion  of   quotes   to   back   the   claims.   This   interpretation   and   presentation   has   been   done   first  by  comparing  and  contrasting  data  on  similar  themes  and  sub-­‐themes  from   Cases  Alpha,  Beta  and  Cairo,  while  sub-­‐themes  unique  to  any  university  has  been   presented   differently.   The   researcher   further   used   the   literature   to   either   support   or   distinguish   findings   arising   from   case   universities;   similar   to   the   explanation   of   pattern   matching   by   Klenke   (2008)   that   it   involves   linking   two   patterns   where   one   is   theoretically   based   and   the   other   operational   and   observed.   Theoretical   patterns   arise   from   traditional   theories,   ideas.   While   the   operational   pattern   stems   from   direct   observation,   interviews,   field   notes   and   other  supporting  documents.  Internal  validity  of  the  study  is  therefore  enhanced   if  patterns  match.    

ü Afterwards,  findings  have  been  discussed  as  to  how  it  is  similar  or  different  from   what  has  been  obtained  in  literature,  from  which  conclusion  has  been  drawn.