NON-BULLSHIT MARXISM (CONTRA LA MANCA DE CLAREDAT)

Another field of research in HACCP has been to explore the reasons for lack of HACCP uptake or ineffective HACCP implementation. This has led to a number of studies on what have come to be called ‘barriers’ to HACCP. A review of research undertaken to date exploring and identifying barriers provided nineteen peer reviewed papers and a PhD study. These twenty publications were published between 1995-2011 and are from a wide range of countries as indicated in figure 3 (Barbados, Canada, Cyprus, Dubai, Madagascar, Mauritius, Nigeria, Oman, Poland, Thailand, Turkey, the UK and the USA).

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The review includes almost exclusively research papers with the exception of one PhD thesis. These papers provide an insight into barriers to HACCP implementation. Several papers focus exclusively on HACCP barriers (Taylor, 2011), (Taylor, 2008), (Bas, 2007), (Taylor, 2007), (Yapp, 2006), (Azanza, 2005), (Tayor, 2004a), (Taylor, 2004b). The remaining twelve papers have wider objectives but barriers to HACCP implementation feature in the findings.

The twenty publications are presented in summary table 3, a discussion of the methods, findings and limitations follows.

Author, date Method/sample Findings/barriers to

effective HACCP implementation Limitations of research Taylor, J. et al. (2011) UK, Barbados, Dubai, Nigeria & Oman

In-depth narrative interviews supported by documentary analysis in food service sector.

Supports the findings of parallel UK research. Barriers to food safety management are likely to have global relevance.

Low sample size.

Herath, D., et al (2010) Canada Questionnaire. 134 participants. Quantitative analysis of impact of barriers in Taylor’s 20 barrier model. 4 barrier groupings – questionable appropriateness, scale of change required, low priority of food safety and financial constraints.

Republication/analysis of author’s 2006 data. 13% response rate. Majority of participants meat

processors. Only including primary

producers. Questionnaire incorporates 20 barriers explicitly – potential bias resulting.

Sarter, S. et al. (2010)

Interviews, documentary review and SWOT analysis.

Very small businesses in informal sector represent the highest proportion of businesses and need assistance. Very small

Methodology not provided and results not presented.

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Author, date Method/sample Findings/barriers to

effective HACCP

implementation

Limitations of research

Madagascar

and medium sized businesses barriers are lack of clean water, poor food safety knowledge and belief that food safety precautions are of little value.

Ramnauth, M. et al. (2008)

Mauritius

On-site questionnaire and 11 (of 26). Participants fish processors.

Absence of legal requirement, lack of knowledge, lack of support, lack of training.

Low sample number. 42% response rate. Taylor, J. (2008) UK In-depth narrative interviews supported by documentary analysis. 22 food service businesses.

‘21 barriers to success’ model developed across knowledge, attitude and behaviour.

Limited to the UK food service sector. Violaris, Y. et al. (2008) Cyprus Questionnaire and interview. Participants 300 food business managers. Response rate approaching 100%

Knowledge of food safety, commitment of resources, access to expertise.

Self reporting. Full methodological detail not provided.

Bas, M. et al. (2007)

Turkey

On-site questionnaire and interview. Participants 115 food businesses.

Lack of prerequisite programs, lack of

knowledge about HACCP, cost, time.

Lack of information about sampling method,

response rate and interview method. Taylor, J. (2007c) UK PhD Thesis. In-depth narrative interviews, documentary analysis with 22 food service businesses managers.

‘21 barriers to success’ model developed across knowledge, attitude and behaviour.

Limited to the UK food service sector.

Herath, D. et al. (2006)

Postal questionnaire. 134 (of 1044) primary

producers (meat, dairy,

Budgetary constraints, perceived sufficiency of current system,

13% response rate. Self reporting not verified by further research.

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Author, date Method/sample Findings/barriers to

effective HACCP

implementation

Limitations of research

Canada

vegetable producers) preparation for HACCP implementation Azanza, M.P. et al. (2005) Philippines Narrative interview/ questionnaire 27 participants from four food businesses

Low levels of HACCP knowledge were a barrier. Attitude and behaviour not measured as low levels of

knowledge.

Weakness in sampling – participants from previous research projects. Lack of detail and conflicting information about methodological approaches used. Konecka- Matyek, E. et al. (2005) Poland Questionnaire. Participants 80 (of 400) food businesses. Cost, management challenges, upkeep of documentation.

20% response rate. Self reporting.

Yapp, C. et al. (2005)

UK

Analysis of local authority compliance data, semi- structured interviews, compliance assessments.

Several including; lack of money, lack of time, lack of experience.

Results not presented, only findings - not possible to ascertain rigour. Taylor, E. & Taylor J.Z. (2004a) UK In depth narrative interview – one farmer.

Lack of credibility and oppression of officials and authorities, burden of paperwork and formalities.

Perspective of just one UK farmer. Taylor, E. & Taylor J.Z. (2004b) 4 in-depth narrative interviews. HACCP as difficult, burdensome and unnecessary, and hindered by staff and external problems. Barriers found to be operating on levels of knowledge, attitude and behaviour.

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Author, date Method/sample Findings/barriers to

effective HACCP implementation Limitations of research (2002) UK follow up telephone interview Participants 102 (of 159) food businesses.

expertise. reporting. 64% response rate.

Taylor, E. (2001)

UK

Discussion paper. Ability to change, expertise, costs, time, documentation and validation.

Proposed benefits of HACCP are not linked to evidence based research.

Food Standards Agency (2001) UK Postal questionnaire to local government authorities. Included 50% of all UK local authorities

Perceived complexity and bureaucracy, lack of knowledge and adequate training, poor

communication of information/guidance.

Indicative only, based on perceptions of local authorities.

Gilling, S. et al. (2001)

UK

Narrative interview and 200 telephone interviews.

11 barriers identified and linked to knowledge attitude and behaviour.

Jirathana, P. (1998)

Thailand

Discussion paper. Lack of effective education and training, language issues, confused messages in training manuals, scientific and technical requirements, not adhered to in practice.

Some observations may be outdated. Ehiri, J.E. et al. (1995) Discussion paper/literature review Lack of knowledge, disputed relevance, lack of time, cost.

Outdated. No empirical research.

Table 3: Summary of research into HACCP barriers

The twenty studies identify a wide range of potential barriers to effective HACCP implementation. Many of the same barriers are identified in many of

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the studies and the barriers do not seem to have changed during the 16 years between publication of the first and last study. Barriers describing lack of knowledge, disputed relevance, lack of time and prohibitive costs are identified in both Ehiri (1995) and Taylor (2011) among others.

Other recurring barriers include; inability to change (Taylor, 2001), perceived complexity of HACCP systems (Jirathana, 1998), (FSA, 2001), (Gilling, 2001), (Taylor, 2002), (Taylor, 2007), (Taylor, 2008), (Taylor, 2011), inadequate training (Jirathana, 1998), (FSA 2001), poor guidance (Jirathana, 1998), (Gilling, 2001), burden of paperwork (FSA 2001), (Taylor, 2004a), (Taylor, 2004b), (Konecka-Matyek, 2005), inadequate prerequisites to HACCP (Herath, 2006), (Bas, 2006), lack of management commitment (Violaris, 2008), absence of legal compulsion (Ramnauth, 2008) and lack of government support (Ramnauth, 2008).

In 2001 a model providing a framework for HACCP barriers was developed and published (Gilling, 2001). This model was the result of project adopting an in- depth interview technique known as the ‘narrative interview technique’. This research was underpinned by theories usually applied in social psychology research. The model categorises barriers under the subheadings of knowledge, attitude and behaviour.

Gilling’s research saw the start of a more in-depth approach to HACCP research focusing on the experiences of food managers and food handlers. The in-depth approach to HACCP research has since been advanced by the co- authors of the Gilling’s 2001 paper; (Taylor, 2004a), (Taylor, 2004b) (Azanza, 2005). The study of HACCP barriers through the prism of knowledge, attitude and behaviour has been used to increase understanding about barriers and develop effective solutions.

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In 2007 research funded by the Food Standards Agency UK was published (Taylor, 2007). Twenty-two food service businesses participated in a longitudinal study in the Manchester, UK. In-depth interviews and documentary analysis were used to measure change in knowledge, attitude and behaviour pre and post implementation of a new system of HACCP for the food service sector (Safer Food Better Business). This study represents the largest and most in-depth research into barriers to date.

The research identified 21 barriers to successful HACCP implementation and categorised them under four headings; external behavioural barriers, internal behavioural barriers, attitude/psychological barriers and knowledge/expertise barriers (see figure 4). Taylor (2011) brings together research from Barbados, Dubai, Nigeria and Oman which adopt similar methodology and identify equivalent barriers. This research demonstrates that the ’21 barriers model’ has relevance beyond the UK hospitality sector.

The barriers model has also been adopted by researchers working with quantitative methods. Herath (2010) research has used Taylor’s model and measured the respective impact of each barrier in US food processing industry. The study used a questionnaire to collect data and asked participants to indicate the importance of each of the barriers on a 5-point likert scale. The research found that the most important barriers were associated with lack of resources and adequacy of existing food safety controls.

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Figure 4: 21barriers to HACCP and food safety management in hospitality (Taylor, 2007).

Across the twenty studies the findings coincide and are reinforced, it appears there are common barriers across industry sectors and countries. A significant

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proportion of research into HACCP barriers adopts an in-depth methodological approach that puts food managers and food handlers at the centre of research and acknowledges the potential sensitivities of those with day to day involvement in and responsibility for producing safe food. It is therefore in this area of the literature that most can be learnt about HACCP and HACCP research.