Programas de magíster y postítulo

The traditional dichotomy of terms, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, describe the oppositional reasons or goals for behaviour (Thoonen E. E., Sleegers, Peetsma, & Oort, 2011). Extrinsic motivation is doing something for an external reason or unrelated

reward such as house points, merits or certificates, while intrinsically motivated behaviour concerns the performance of activities for their own sake, for the pleasure inherently found in the activity itself (Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 2001). Intrinsically motivated activities are not expected to yield rewards (Lepper, Keavney, & Drake, 1996) beyond the personal satisfaction of undertaking them and when this is linked to academic activities high-quality learning (Ryan & Deci, 2000) has been found to occur, far higher than the same tasks undertaken for extrinsic reasons. So, stimulating and supporting intrinsic motivation is important in educational settings.

2.4.1 Intrinsic motivation, academic intrinsic motivation and internally controlled behaviour

These are three closely linked terms that are easily interchangeable in the literature but actually have different origins despite the exhibited behaviour being expressed in a similar fashion.

Intrinsic motivation, and its antonym extrinsic motivation, are general terms relating to the use of reward for undertaking or engaging with an activity. Deci, Ryan, Koestner and Cameron, Pierce discuss their research in these terms when applied to students of all ages undertaking activities under various experimental conditions. However, the terms can be used in relation to any activity, learning related or otherwise and as much of the traditional debate suggests (Deci, Ryan, & Koestner, 1999; Cameron & Pierce, 1994) both forms of motivation can be influenced both positively and negatively by the way a task is presented and any associated rewards or punishmensts attached to it.

Academic intrinsic motivation describes a student’s approach to academic related activities. It might be subject specific or fluctuate in strength with relation to different academic subjects but it also describes the more overarching approach and attitude to education in general. Gottfried (1990) and Gottfried, Fleming and Gottffried (2001) found it to be a stable, reliable and valid construct for primary aged children and showed that academic intrinsic motivation at age 9 was a significant predictor of motivation up to two years later and that higher levels of academic intrinsic motivation correlated with higher school achievement, lower academic anxiety and favourable perceptions of academic competence (p525). Although stable at a young age academic intrinsic motivation was found to decline with age (Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 2001) suggesting the importance of primary school teachers enhancing and cultivating intrinsic motivation in their students.

Internally controlled behaviours may appear to originate from an intrinsic form of motivation but Ryan, Koestner and Deci (1991) describe the origin as an internal pressure to maintain self-worth which is antagonistic to intrinsic motivation. It is when an individual does something because they believe it is expected by others, they do not engage in the activity because the activity is intrinsically motivating, more that the social outcomes of the activity work towards maintaining a sense of self-worth and competence. The behaviour is intentionally controlled by the individual in-line with what might be expected in the situation, a form of peer or social pressure. Intentional behaviour exists along a continuum from autonomous (behaviours undertaken with little deliberate thought, habitual behaviour) to controlled (behaviour requiring the individual to actively motivate themselves to do) (Deci & Ryan, 1987). At the autonomous end of the spectrum it can be considered a fully internalised form of extrinsic motivation and

this along with intrinsic motivation has been associated positively with quality learning (Deci, Ryan, & Williams, 1996). It is therefore important to understand what motivates students to engage with a task and appreciate the expression of their behaviour as related to internal conditions and their emotional connection with the task.

2.4.2 Intrinsic motivation as a construct of self

Intrinsic motivation is an important construct in educational settings across cultures (Zhou, Ma, & Deci, 2009) and emanates from the self (Ryan & Deci , 2000), so intrinsic motivation is an expression of the student’s inner self, a reflection of their well-being and self-perceived abilities. It has been linked with a variety of desirable qualities such as competence, autonomy, relatedness, mental health and well-being (Ryan & Deci , 2000; Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci, 2006). It is also reflected as an interest in learning, valuing of education, improved confidence in capability and autonomy (Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991) which can coalesce to create a mature learner who is resilient to set backs and failure, viewing them as learning opportunities and not personal, damaging critiques of the self.

2.4.3 Motivation by reward

Unfortunately, academic intrinsic motivation is not easy to cultivate in all students for all curriculum-based activities at all times in the classroom and the use of rewards and incentives is regularly employed in schools (Grigg, 2010) to encourage pupils to engage with tasks they would not otherwise engage with. This is an example of extrinsic motivation and involves someone engaging in a task for a reward or to avoid a punishment (Wearmouth, Richmond, Ted, & Berryman, 2004) a situation often found not only in schools but in adult life too. The reward and indeed the punishment do not

need to have any relevance to the task and can be tangible or verbal / social rewards (Chaplain, 2014). The impact these rewards have on intrinsic motivation was the focus of a robust debate between Deci et al (1999) and Cameron, Pierce (1994) which polarised the research community for some time. Working with findings of meta- analyses on both sides Cameron and Pierce (1994) claimed ‘reward does not decrease intrinsic motivation, that verbal praise increases intrinsic motivation and the only negative effect appears when expected tangible rewards are given for simply doing a task’ (p363). Whereas Deci, Ryan and Koestner (1999) claimed ‘all rewards undermined free-choice, intrinsic motivation and significantly undermined self- reported interest in the task. Tangible rewards were more detrimental for children than older students and verbal rewards tended to be less enhancing for children than older students’ (p627).

This has left primary school educators in a confused state. They understand that intrinsically motivated students do not need rewards, either tangible or verbal (Lepper, Keavney, & Drake, 1996) even though verbal rewards enhance intrinsic motivation (Wiesman, 2012). Extrinsic rewards should not be used (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 2001) yet ‘teachers learn that if they want their third graders to continue with their efforts [ ] they should reward them for their progress’ (Hennessey, 2000, p. 60). Adding to these mixed messages Lepper et al (1996) tell us that intrinsic motivation is not really possible in primary schools, as tasks set by adults cannot be undertaken without some form of social approval being attached to their completion.

The main problem would seem to be not necessarily the nature of the reward but how it is perceived and indeed how the task being rewarded was presented in the first place. It

is an often quoted finding that extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 2001), engagement (Deci & Ryan, 1987) and interest (Deci, Ryan, & Koestner, 1999) and yet extrinsic rewards are ubiquitous in schools suggesting their use does facilitate desirable learning behaviours. Perhaps there is a balance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to be found that can support the basic needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness in this social context. Deci, Ryan and Williams (1996) suggest inclusion of choice, challenge, informational feedback, interpersonal involvement and the acknowledgement of feelings to be useful. That is to say teachers who use rewards to control student behaviour may demotivate their pupils and lower their self-esteem because compliance is felt as a reduction in autonomy and competence. Whereas the same rewards used informationally that support autonomy will have the opposite effect (Deci, Nezlek, & Sheinman, 1981). The situation appears to be more related to how the student perceives the situation in relation to their internal motivational profile (Lester, 1990), that is how the situation relates to their sense of self.