Chapter 3 Applications 170
IV. THE SPINLESS N-FERMION HARMONIUM: LINEAR ENTROPY
The earlier seventeenth century, and especially the period of the English Revolution (1640–60), was a time of intense ferment in all areas of life —
religion, science, politics, domestic relations, culture. That ferment was reflected in the literature of the era, which also registered a heightened focus on and analysis of the self and the personal life. However, little of this seems in evidence in the elaborate frontispiece to Michael Drayton's long
"chorographical" poem on the landscape, regions, and local history of Great Britain (1612), which appeared in the first years of the reign of the Stuart king James I (1603–1625). The frontispiece appears to represent a peaceful, prosperous, triumphant Britain, with England, Scotland, and Wales united, patriarchy and monarchy firmly established, and the nation serving as
the great theme for lofty literary celebration. Albion (the Roman name for Britain) is a young and beautiful virgin wearing as cloak a map featuring rivers, trees, mountains, churches, towns; she carries a scepter and holds a cornucopia, symbol of plenty. Ships on the horizon signify exploration, trade, and garnering the riches of the sea. In the four corners stand four conquerors whose descendants ruled over Britain: the legendary Brutus, Julius Caesar, Hengist the Saxon, and the Norman William the Conqueror, "whose line yet rules," as Drayton's introductory poem states.
Yet this frontispiece also registers some of the tensions, conflicts, and redefinitions evident in the literature of the period and explored more directly in the topics and texts in this portion of the NTO Web site. It is Albion herself, not King James, who is seated in the center holding the emblems of sovereignty; her male conquerors stand to the side, and their smaller size and their number suggest something unstable in monarchy and patriarchy. Albion's robe with its multiplicity of regional features, as well as the "Poly" of the title, suggests forces pulling against national unity. Also, Poly‐Olbion had no successors: instead of a celebration of the nation in the vein of Spenser's Faerie Queene or Poly‐Olbion itself, the great seventeenth‐century heroic poem, Paradise Lost, treats the Fall of Man and its tragic consequences, "all our woe."
The first topic here, "Gender, Family, Household: Seventeenth‐Century Norms and Controversies," provides important religious, legal, and domestic advice texts through which to explore cultural assumptions about gender roles and the patriarchal family. It also invites attention to how those assumptions are modified or challenged in the practices of actual families and households; in tracts on transgressive subjects (cross‐dressing, women speaking in church, divorce); in women's texts asserting women's worth, talents, and rights; and especially in the upheavals of the English Revolution.
"Paradise Lost in Context," the second topic for this period, surrounds that radically revisionist epic with texts that invite readers to examine how it engages with the interpretative traditions surrounding the Genesis story, how it uses classical myth, how it challenges orthodox notions of Edenic innocence, and how it is positioned within but also against the epic tradition from Homer to Virgil to Du Bartas. The protagonists here are not martial heroes but a domestic couple who must, both before and after their Fall, deal with questions hotly contested in the seventeenth century but also perennial: how to build a good marital relationship; how to think about science, astronomy, and the nature of things; what constitutes tyranny, servitude, and liberty; what history teaches; how to meet the daily challenges of love, work, education, change, temptation, and deceptive rhetoric; how to reconcile free will and divine providence; and how to understand and respond to God's ways.
The third topic, "Civil Wars of Ideas: Seventeenth‐Century Politics, Religion, and Culture," provides an opportunity to explore, through political and polemical treatises and striking images, some of the issues and conflicts that led to civil war and the overthrow of monarchical government (1642–60). These include royal absolutism vs. parliamentary or popular sovereignty, monarchy vs. republicanism, Puritanism vs. Anglicanism, church ritual and ornament vs. iconoclasm, toleration vs. religious uniformity, and controversies over court masques and Sunday sports. The climax to all this was the highly dramatic trial and execution of King Charles I (January 1649), a cataclysmic event that sent shock waves through courts, hierarchical institutions, and traditionalists everywhere; this event is presented here through contemporary accounts and graphic images.
Elisabeth I
The English Elizabethan Era is one of the most fascinating periods in the History of England. The Elizabethan Era is named after the greatest Queens of England ‐ Queen Elizabeth I. The Elizabethan Era is not only famous for the Virgin Queen but also for the era itself ‐ Great Explorers, such as Sir Francis Drake and Walter Raleigh. The era of the very first Theatres in England ‐ William Shakespeare, the globe Theatre and Christopher Marlowe! The people of the era ‐ the Famous Figures who featured in the history of this era such as the Queen's love Robert Dudley, the sinister Dr. John Dee, the intrigues of the spy‐master Sir Francis Walsingham and the Queen's chief advisor Sir William Cecil (Lord Burghley). Religion ‐ Politics ‐ Executions ‐ Crime and Punishment all played their part in the Elizabethan era, and so did the commoners.
The Crime and Punishment at her time is not a happy subjectit was a violent time. Crimes were met with violent, cruel punishments. Many punishments and executions were witnessed by many hundreds of people. The Lower Classes treated such events as exciting days out. Even royalty were subjected to this most public form of punishment for their crimes. The execution of the tragic Anne Boleyn was restricted to the Upper Classes and Nobility and was witnessed by several hundred spectators!
This era was split into two classes ‐ the Upper Class, the nobility and courtiers, and everyone else! Punishment would vary according to class. The Upper class was well educated, wealthy and associated with Royalty and high members of the clergy. They would often become involved in Political intrigue and matters of Religion. The nobility could therefore become involved in crime which was not shared by other people. Just being accused of one of the serious crimes could well result in torture. A Defendant's chances in receiving any acquittal in court extremely slim. Trials were designed in the favour of the prosecutors and defendants accused any of the following crimes were not even allowed legal counsel.
The most common crimes of the Nobility included: High Treason; Blasphemy; Sedition; Spying; Rebellion; Murder;
Witchcraft; Alchemy.
Many crimes committed by commoners were through sheer desperation and abject poverty. The most common crimes were:Theft; Cut purses; Begging; Poaching;Adultery; Debtors; Forgers; Fraud;Dice coggers.
Theft for stealing anything over 5 pence resulted in hanging ‐ a terrible price to pay for poor people who were starving.
Even such small crimes such as stealing bird eggs could result in the death sentence. Punishment for poaching crimes differed according to when the crime was committed ‐ Poaching at night resulted in the punishment by death, whereas poaching during the day time did not. Begging was a serious crime during the Elizabethan era. The Elizabethan government made begging a crime and therefore illegal and 'poor beggars' As their punishment 'poor beggars' would be beaten until they reached the stones that marked the town parish boundary. The beatings given as punishment were bloody and merciless and those who were caught continually begging could be sent to prison and even hanged as their punishment.
Life in Elizabethan England was chronicled by an Elizabethan called William Harrison ‐ this included details of Elizabethan crime and punishment. The most dreadful punishment of being Hung, Drawn and Quartered was described by William Harrison as:
"The greatest and most grievous punishment used in England for such as offend against the State is drawing from the prison to the place of execution upon an hurdle or sled, where they are hanged till they be half dead, and then taken down, and quartered alive; after that, their members and bowels are cut from their bodies, and thrown into a fire, provided near hand and within their own sight, even for the same purpose."
Other punishment included execution by burning and beheading. Being burnt at the stake was a terrible death.
Executioners sometimes showed mercy to their victims by placing gunpowder at the base of the stake which helped the victims to a swifter, and less painful, death. The only other respite from the excruciating pain of being burnt to death was if the victims died of suffocation through smoke inhalation and lack of oxygen.
The punishment of Death by the axe was a terrifying prospect. The Elizabethan executioners often took several blows before the head was finally severed. The punishment of death by Execution were held in public and witnessed by many people. Following the execution the severed head was held up by the hair by the executioner, not as many people think to show the crowd the head, but in fact to show the head the crowd and to it's own body! Consciousness remains for at least eight seconds after beheading, until lack of oxygen causes unconsciousness, and eventually death. The punishment by beheading therefore even continued after 'death'. The Heads of Elizabethan traitors were placed on stakes and displayed in public places such as London Bridge.
Punishment for commoners, the lower class, during the Elizabethan period included the following: Hanging; Burning; The Pillory and the Stocks; Whipping;Branding;Pressing; Ducking stools; The Wheel; Boiling in oil water or lead (usually reserved for poisoners); Starvation in a public place; Cutting off various items of the anatomy ‐ hands, ears etc; The Gossip's Bridle or the Brank; The Drunkards Cloak
Minor crime and punishment in small Elizabethan towns were dealt with by the Justice of the Peace. Many crimes during the Elizabethan era were due to a crime committed and the law broken due to the desperate acts of the poor. Every town parish was responsible for the poor and unemployed within that parish. The Justice of the Peace for each town parish was allowed to collect a tax from those who owned land in the town. This was called the Poor Rate which was used to help the poor during the Elizabethan period.
EVEN TRAVEL AND ACTING IN ELIZABETHAN ENGLAND WAS A CRIME WITHOUT A LICENCE!
People did not travel around a lot during the Tudor and Elizabethan era. Travelling during the Elizabethan era could be dangerous, money was necessary and a license, obtained from the Bailiff in the Guild Hall, was required by anyone who needed to travel around England ‐ it was a crime to travel without a licence. This law ensured that the spread of disease, especially the plague, was contained as much as possible and that the poor and the homeless did not travel from one village to another village ‐ an Elizabethan ploy to lower the crime and punishment levels in England. Strangers were treated with suspicion and risked being accused of crimes and suffered the appropriate punishment.